{
 "exported": "2026-11-03",
 "domains": 57,
 "note": "Alignment Audit evidence bank by EarthPilot. Only citations with status VERIFIED or VERIFIED-URL were resolved on Crossref, DataCite or by URL; others are kept for transparency and never shown on a report.",
 "entries": [
  {
   "id": "extracurricular-access",
   "domain": "Access to extracurricular activities, athletics and the arts",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "discipline",
    "graduation",
    "postsecondary",
    "equity-gaps",
    "physical-health"
   ],
   "finding": "Causal studies find that participation pays: Houston's randomized arts-access initiative (42 schools, more than 10,000 students) reduced disciplinary infractions, raised writing achievement and increased empathy and, for elementary students, school engagement and college aspirations; Title IX's forced expansion of girls' sports raised women's college attendance and employment (Stevenson); German sports-club participation improved grades and health. Longitudinal work (Fredricks and Eccles) links breadth of participation to higher GPA, college enrollment and lower risk behavior. Fees are the main access barrier: average required fees in 2018 to 2019 were $161 for sports, $86 for arts and $46 for clubs, lower-income students are twice as likely not to participate, and only 7% of parents have ever requested a waiver.",
   "effect": "arts RCT: discipline referrals down, writing up, empathy up; Title IX sports expansion: +1 pp college attendance per 10 pp participation; lower-income nonparticipation about 2x; waiver uptake 7%",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Most of the participation literature is correlational and selection runs strongly (motivated, better-resourced students join), so effect sizes from longitudinal studies overstate causal returns. The Houston RCT found no effect on attendance, math, reading or science scores, and only elementary students showed engagement gains. Zdroik and Veliz found Michigan schools with pay-to-play fees had similar participation rates to schools without fees, but the schools able to charge fees were larger, whiter and lower-poverty, which is the selection problem itself rather than evidence that fees are harmless. Fee elimination has a real budget cost and the research does not show which activities yield the most per dollar. Sports carry injury and concussion costs that the achievement studies do not count.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Bowen DH, Kisida B (2023). Investigating the Causal Effects of Arts Education. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 42(3):624-647.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22449",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Random assignment of arts-education opportunities across 42 Houston schools reduced disciplinary infractions, improved writing achievement and raised emotional empathy; elementary students also gained engagement and college aspirations",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Investigating the Causal Effects of Arts Education",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Bowen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 23,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22449.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fredricks JA, Eccles JS (2006). Is extracurricular participation associated with beneficial outcomes? Concurrent and longitudinal relations. Developmental Psychology 42(4):698-713.",
     "doi": "10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.698",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2006,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Breadth and duration of extracurricular participation in grade 11 predicted higher GPA, college enrollment and psychological adjustment, with diminishing returns at very high levels",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Is extracurricular participation associated with beneficial outcomes? Concurrent and longitudinal relations.",
      "year": 2006,
      "journal": "Developmental Psychology",
      "first_author": "Fredricks",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 880,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_0012_1649_42_4_698.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Stevenson B (2010). Beyond the Classroom: Using Title IX to Measure the Return to High School Sports. Review of Economics and Statistics 92(2):284-301.",
     "doi": "10.1162/rest.2010.11623",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Title IX-driven increases in girls' sports participation raised women's college attendance and labor-force participation, about 1 point per 10-point rise in participation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Beyond the Classroom: Using Title IX to Measure the Return to High School Sports",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Review of Economics and Statistics",
      "first_author": "Stevenson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 187,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_rest_2010_11623.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Felfe C, Lechner M, Steinmayr A (2016). Sports and Child Development. PLOS ONE 11(5):e0151729.",
     "doi": "10.1371/journal.pone.0151729",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Using German panel data with matching and instrumental variables, sports-club participation improved children's school grades, health and peer relations",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Sports and Child Development",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "PLOS ONE",
      "first_author": "Felfe",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 146,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1371_journal_pone_0151729.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Zdroik J, Veliz P (2016). The Influence of Pay-To-Play Fees on Participation in Interscholastic Sports: A School-Level Analysis of Michigan's Public Schools. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 13(12):1317-1324.",
     "doi": "10.1123/jpah.2016-0099",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Schools that charge participation fees are disproportionately large, suburban, white and low-poverty; participation rates were similar to fee-free schools within that selected set",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Influence of Pay-To-Play Fees on Participation in Interscholastic Sports: A School-Level Analysis of Michigan’s Public Schools",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Physical Activity and Health",
      "first_author": "Zdroik",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 21,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1123_jpah_2016_0099.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "C.S. Mott Children's Hospital National Poll on Children's Health (2019). Pay-to-Participate: Impact on School Activities. March 18, 2019.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.mottpoll.org/sites/default/files/documents/031819_PayToParticipate.pdf",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "National parent survey: average required fees of $161 for sports, $86 for arts and $46 for clubs; lower-income students twice as likely not to participate; only 7% of parents had ever requested a waiver",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Farb AF, Matjasko JL (2012). Recent advances in research on school-based extracurricular activities and adolescent development. Developmental Review 32(1):1-48.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.dr.2011.10.001",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Review of the 2005 to 2011 literature: participation is consistently associated with academic achievement, lower dropout and less risk behavior, with selection bias the main caveat",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Recent advances in research on school-based extracurricular activities and adolescent development",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Developmental Review",
      "first_author": "Farb",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 389,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Participation rate in at least one school-sponsored activity by free-and-reduced-lunch status, race and grade (student information system activity rosters); number and dollar value of fee waivers granted versus eligible students; share of elementary students receiving weekly arts instruction; list of activities cut or added each year with enrollment.",
   "standard": "The district shall guarantee that no student is excluded from any school-sponsored activity for inability to pay, shall grant automatic fee waivers to students eligible for free or reduced-price meals without a separate application, shall provide weekly arts instruction in every elementary grade, and shall report participation by subgroup to the board annually.",
   "model_clause": "No student shall be denied participation in any school-sponsored athletic, arts, club or other extracurricular activity because of inability to pay a fee, purchase equipment or uniforms, or pay for travel. Any participation fee shall be waived automatically for every student eligible for free or reduced-price meals, for students in foster care or experiencing homelessness, and for any other student whose parent or guardian signs a statement of hardship; no separate application shall be required and waiver status shall not be visible to other students. Each school shall offer at least one no-fee activity option in each of athletics, arts and academic clubs. Every elementary school shall provide at least 60 minutes per week of instruction in visual art and 60 minutes per week in music taught by a certified arts teacher. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by November 1 each year the share of students in each school participating in at least one activity, disaggregated by free-and-reduced-lunch status, race and grade, the number and value of waivers granted, the fee schedule for every activity, and any activity discontinued in the prior year with the enrollment it had. The Board shall review the fee schedule annually and shall not raise any fee without a public hearing.",
   "red_flags": [
    "participation fees are required and non-refundable",
    "fee waivers are available upon application with documentation of hardship",
    "students with outstanding fees or fines may not participate",
    "activities may be cancelled when enrollment or funding is insufficient, with no notice standard",
    "arts instruction is offered as resources permit",
    "no participation reporting by subgroup",
    "transportation to activities is the responsibility of the family"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "extracurricular",
     "co-curricular",
     "athletics",
     "interscholastic",
     "participation fee",
     "pay-to-play",
     "pay to participate",
     "activity fee",
     "fee waiver",
     "arts education",
     "music",
     "band",
     "theater",
     "clubs"
    ],
    "regex": "extra[- ]?curricular|co[- ]?curricular|athletics?|interscholastic|participation fees?|pay[- ]to[- ](play|participate)|activity fees?|fee waivers?|arts? (education|instruction|program)|music (education|instruction|program)|\\bband\\b|theat(er|re)|student clubs?"
   },
   "law_notes": "Title IX, 20 U.S.C. 1681 and 34 CFR 106.41, requires equal athletic opportunity by sex. California prohibits fees for any educational activity including extracurriculars (Hartzell v. Connell, 35 Cal.3d 899 (1984); Education Code 49010 to 49013, with a required complaint process), while most states permit fees subject to waiver rules; several, including Massachusetts and Ohio, require waivers or caps. The McKinney-Vento Act (42 U.S.C. 11431 et seq.) requires that homeless students not be excluded from activities by fees or documentation. State athletic association eligibility rules govern academic eligibility and may conflict with no-pay-no-play provisions.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through the Director of Student Activities, with the Director of Fine Arts responsible for the elementary arts requirement",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent directs the Director of Student Activities to publish a complete fee schedule for every school-sponsored athletic, arts, club and other activity, including equipment, uniform and travel costs, within 30 days.",
     "The Director of Student Activities and the Director of Nutrition Services build an automatic waiver flag in the student information system so every student eligible for free or reduced-price meals, in foster care or experiencing homelessness is waived without an application and without the status being visible to other students.",
     "The Director of Fine Arts surveys every elementary school and reports to the Superintendent within 60 days which schools provide 60 minutes per week of visual art and 60 minutes per week of music from a certified arts teacher, and which do not.",
     "Each principal confirms to the Superintendent within 90 days that the school offers at least one no-fee option in each of athletics, arts and academic clubs, and names them.",
     "General counsel reviews the district's fee practices against state law and the state athletic association's eligibility rules, including any Title IX or McKinney-Vento exposure, and reports conflicts to the board within 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Fine Arts and the Chief Financial Officer bring the board a staffing and schedule plan so every elementary school meets the 60-minute visual art and 60-minute music requirement by the start of the next school year.",
     "The Director of Student Activities pulls activity rosters from the student information system and produces the first November 1 report showing participation by free-and-reduced-lunch status, race and grade, waivers granted by number and dollar value against eligible students, the fee schedule, and any activity discontinued with its prior enrollment.",
     "The Director of Communications sends every family a plain-language notice, in the home languages the district serves, that no student can be excluded for inability to pay and that a parent hardship statement is enough to waive any fee.",
     "The board holds its first annual fee schedule review in public session and adopts the rule that no fee rises without a public hearing."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent delivers the disaggregated participation, waiver and fee report to the board by November 1 every year.",
     "The board reviews the fee schedule annually and holds a public hearing before any increase.",
     "The Director of Student Activities audits a sample of activity rosters each semester to confirm that no eligible student was charged or turned away and that waiver status was not disclosed."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of students in each school participating in at least one school-sponsored activity, disaggregated by free-and-reduced-lunch status, race and grade, drawn from student information system activity rosters; share of waiver-eligible students who actually received a waiver; share of elementary students receiving weekly arts instruction.",
    "baseline": "The first November 1 report, covering the school year in which the policy is adopted, establishes the baseline participation rate by subgroup, the waiver count against eligible students, and the number of elementary schools meeting the 60-minute art and 60-minute music requirement.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, 100% of free-and-reduced-lunch, foster and homeless students carry an active waiver flag and 100% of elementary schools provide 60 minutes per week each of visual art and music; within 3 years, the gap in participation rates between free-and-reduced-lunch and non-free-and-reduced-lunch students narrows each year from the baseline, with no subgroup's rate falling.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric participation benchmark. National reference points: lower-income students are about 2x as likely not to participate, only 7% of parents have ever requested a waiver, and average required fees in 2018 to 2019 were $161 for sports, $86 for arts and $46 for clubs. The 2x nonparticipation gap is the disparity the policy aims to close.",
    "report": "Superintendent reports to the board by November 1 each year, in public session, with the data posted on the district website; the board's annual fee schedule review follows the report."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "no-exclusion-inability-to-pay",
     "text": "The policy guarantees that no student is excluded from any school-sponsored activity for inability to pay.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "automatic-fee-waiver-frl",
     "text": "The policy grants automatic fee waivers to students eligible for free or reduced-price meals.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-separate-waiver-application",
     "text": "The policy requires no separate application for the fee waiver.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "weekly-elementary-arts",
     "text": "The policy provides weekly arts instruction in every elementary grade.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-subgroup-participation-report",
     "text": "The policy requires participation to be reported by subgroup to the board annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "rigor-access",
   "domain": "Access to rigorous coursework (automatic enrollment, AP, IB, dual credit)",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "postsecondary"
   ],
   "finding": "When districts automatically place every student who meets an objective readiness threshold into the next advanced course, with parent opt-out instead of opt-in, advanced course enrollment rises and gaps by race and income narrow without lowering grades or graduation; Washington's Academic Acceleration policies raised the chance of taking any advanced course by about 5 percent district-wide and more among proficient students who had been passed over. Effects on later college enrollment and persistence from the high school version of the policy are null so far.",
   "effect": "WA Academic Acceleration: advanced course enrollment up, gaps narrowed, GPA and graduation unchanged; college enrollment and persistence unchanged. Wake County objective math placement: income and race no longer predicted placement; on-track-for-algebra share up. Earning AP credit raises degree completion (regression discontinuity).",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "The best-studied high school automatic enrollment policy (Washington, grades 11 and 12) did not change college enrollment, first-year coursetaking, or persistence to a second year (Austin et al. 2026). Wake County's objective placement improved access but accelerated students earned lower course grades in middle school and the acceleration did not raise test scores or college readiness measures (Dougherty et al. 2017). Expanding AP and dual enrollment seats without supports is associated with wider, not narrower, racial participation gaps across districts (Xu, Solanki and Fink 2021). Access is necessary but not sufficient; the courses must be taught well and students supported to pass them.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Austin M, Backes B, Goldhaber D, Li D, Streich F (2025). Leveling Up: An Academic Acceleration Policy to Increase Equity in Advanced High School Course Taking. American Educational Research Journal 62(1):136-179.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00028312241282793",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "72 Washington districts; automatic enrollment of proficient 11th and 12th graders raised advanced course enrollment and made it more equitable, with GPA and graduation stable",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Leveling Up: An Academic Acceleration Policy to Increase Equity in Advanced High School Course Taking",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Austin",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00028312241282793.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Austin M, Mbekeani P, Backes B, Chen B, Goldhaber D (2026). High School Academic Acceleration and Early Postsecondary Outcomes: Evidence from Washington State. CALDER Working Paper 341-0826.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://caldercenter.org/sites/default/files/2026-08/CALDER-WP-341-0826.pdf",
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Same policy had no significant effect on college enrollment, first-year coursetaking, or persistence to a second year",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dougherty SM, Goodman JS, Hill DV, Litke EG, Page LC (2015). Middle School Math Acceleration and Equitable Access to Eighth-Grade Algebra: Evidence From the Wake County Public School System. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 37(1S):80S-101S.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373715576076",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Objective prior-achievement placement rule cut the link between placement and race or income and raised the share on track for algebra by eighth grade",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Middle School Math Acceleration and Equitable Access to Eighth-Grade Algebra",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Dougherty",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 48,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373715576076.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dougherty SM, Goodman JS, Hill DV, Litke EG, Page LC (2017). Objective course placement and college readiness: Evidence from targeted middle school math acceleration. Economics of Education Review 58:141-161.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.04.002",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Students placed by the rule took more advanced math but did not show gains in test scores or college-readiness measures and earned lower middle school grades",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Objective course placement and college readiness: Evidence from targeted middle school math acceleration",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Dougherty",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 40,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Card D, Giuliano L (2016). Universal screening increases the representation of low-income and minority students in gifted education. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(48):13678-13683.",
     "doi": "10.1073/pnas.1605043113",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Replacing referral with universal screening, with no change in cutoffs, sharply raised identification of low-income, Black and Hispanic students: the same mechanism as automatic enrollment",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Universal screening increases the representation of low-income and minority students in gifted education",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
      "first_author": "Card",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 303,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1073_pnas_1605043113.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Smith J, Hurwitz M, Avery C (2017). Giving College Credit Where It Is Due: Advanced Placement Exam Scores and College Outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics 35(1):67-147.",
     "doi": "10.1086/687568",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Students who just earn a credit-granting AP score are more likely to complete a bachelor's degree on time",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Giving College Credit Where It Is Due: Advanced Placement Exam Scores and College Outcomes",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Labor Economics",
      "first_author": "Smith",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 72,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_687568.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jackson CK (2014). Do College-Preparatory Programs Improve Long-Term Outcomes? Economic Inquiry 52(1):72-99.",
     "doi": "10.1111/ecin.12040",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Texas Advanced Placement Incentive Program raised AP exam passing, college persistence beyond the first and second year, and employment, with the largest gains for Hispanic students; no overall degree effect",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "DO COLLEGE‐PREPARATORY PROGRAMS IMPROVE LONG‐TERM OUTCOMES?",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Economic Inquiry",
      "first_author": "JACKSON",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 45,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_ecin_12040.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Xu D, Solanki S, Fink J (2021). College Acceleration for All? Mapping Racial Gaps in Advanced Placement and Dual Enrollment Participation. American Educational Research Journal 58(5):954-992.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831221991138",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Racial gaps in AP and dual enrollment exist in most districts and are wider where access expanded without equity supports",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "College Acceleration for All? Mapping Racial Gaps in Advanced Placement and Dual Enrollment Participation",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Xu",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 84,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831221991138.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of students meeting the readiness threshold who are enrolled in the corresponding advanced course the next term, by race, ethnicity, income, English learner and disability status; AP, IB and dual-credit participation and pass rates by group (state report card, College Board and IB data); opt-out counts by school.",
   "standard": "The policy shall name an objective readiness threshold, require automatic enrollment of every student who meets it in the next most rigorous course offered, allow only written parent opt-out, and require annual public reporting of participation and success by student group.",
   "model_clause": "Each student who meets or exceeds the state standard on the most recent state assessment in English language arts, mathematics, or science, or who earns a grade of B or higher in the prerequisite course, shall be enrolled in the next most rigorous level of coursework offered in that subject, including honors, Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, and dual-credit courses, for the following term. Enrollment shall not depend on a teacher recommendation, application, or test fee. A student may be placed in an alternative course only when a parent or guardian submits a written opt-out after receiving written notice of the student's eligibility. Principals shall provide the notice by June 1 for the following year. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 15 each year the number of eligible students, the number enrolled, the number opted out, and advanced course completion and exam pass rates, each disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, and shall publish the report on the district website.",
   "red_flags": [
    "teacher recommendation required for honors, AP, or IB placement",
    "application, essay, or interview required for advanced courses",
    "students must opt in to advanced courses",
    "prerequisite grade thresholds above B or above the state standard",
    "AP exam fees or dual-credit tuition charged to students without a waiver",
    "no reporting of advanced course participation by student group"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "advanced placement",
     "honors",
     "international baccalaureate",
     "dual credit",
     "academic acceleration",
     "automatic enrollment",
     "course placement",
     "rigorous courses"
    ],
    "regex": "advanced placement|\\bAP\\b|honors? (course|class|program)|international baccalaureate|\\bIB\\b|dual[- ]credit|academic acceleration|automatic(ally)? enroll|course placement|opt[- ]out"
   },
   "law_notes": "Washington RCW 28A.320.195 required every district board to adopt an academic acceleration policy by 2021-22 that automatically enrolls students who meet the state standard on the grade 8 or high school ELA or math assessment in the next most rigorous course, with parent opt-out. Illinois Accelerated Placement Act (105 ILCS 5/14A-32), amended by Public Act 103-0743 in 2024, requires automatic enrollment of high school students who exceed state standards in the next most rigorous course and an option to enroll for students who meet them, with district policies amended by 2027-28. North Carolina G.S. 115C-81.36 requires placement of students who score at the highest level on the math end-of-grade or end-of-course test in the advanced course for their next math course. Texas SB 2124 (2023) requires automatic enrollment in advanced sixth grade math of students in the top 40 percent on the fifth grade STAAR math test, with parent opt-out.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning as day-to-day lead",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent designates the Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning to lead implementation and names a data lead in the assessment office within 30 days.",
     "The data lead builds the eligibility list by matching the most recent state assessment results in English language arts, mathematics, and science and prerequisite course grades of B or higher to each student, and sends each principal a school roster within 60 days.",
     "The Superintendent issues an administrative procedure within 60 days that bars teacher recommendations, applications, and test fees as enrollment conditions and defines the written opt-out form.",
     "Principals brief counselors and department chairs on the automatic enrollment rule and the June 1 parent notice deadline within 90 days.",
     "The Superintendent reviews the current master schedule with each principal within 90 days to identify where honors, AP, IB, and dual-credit seat counts must grow to hold every eligible student."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Principals send written eligibility notices to every eligible student's parent or guardian by June 1 and log each written opt-out received.",
     "Counselors enroll every eligible student who has not opted out in the next most rigorous course for the following term and the data lead confirms the enrollment match before the term begins.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first report to the Board by October 15 covering eligible, enrolled, and opted-out counts and completion and exam pass rates, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, and publishes it on the district website.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning arranges AP, IB, and dual-credit teacher training and exam fee support so that added sections are staffed and students can sit the exams."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The data lead refreshes the eligibility roster each term and principals repeat the June 1 notice and opt-out process every year.",
     "The Superintendent presents the October 15 report to the Board annually and flags any school where opt-out counts or group gaps stand out.",
     "The Board reviews the policy every 1 to 3 years against state law changes and the district's own enrollment and pass-rate trends."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of students meeting the readiness threshold who are enrolled in the corresponding advanced course the next term, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, plus AP, IB, and dual-credit participation and pass rates by group and opt-out counts by school.",
    "baseline": "The eligible-to-enrolled match rate, opt-out counts, and advanced course participation and pass rates by group as calculated by the data lead from the first eligibility roster before the first June 1 notices go out.",
    "target": "By the first October 15 report, every eligible student not covered by a written opt-out is enrolled in the corresponding advanced course, and by the third annual report the enrollment rate among eligible students no longer differs by race, ethnicity, or income, with advanced course completion and exam pass rates by group holding steady or rising rather than falling.",
    "benchmark": "Washington's Academic Acceleration policies raised the chance of taking any advanced course by about 5 percent district-wide, with larger gains among proficient students who had been passed over, and GPA and graduation unchanged; Wake County's objective math placement ended the link between income or race and placement. The entry gives no numeric pass-rate or college enrollment benchmark, and college enrollment and persistence effects are null so far.",
    "report": "The Superintendent's annual report to the Board by October 15, published on the district website, with the eligible, enrolled, and opted-out counts and completion and exam pass rates disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, cross-checked against the state report card and College Board and IB data."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "objective-readiness-threshold",
     "text": "The policy names an objective readiness threshold for placement in advanced coursework.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "automatic-enrollment",
     "text": "The policy requires automatic enrollment of every student who meets the readiness threshold in the next most rigorous course offered.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "written-parent-opt-out-only",
     "text": "The policy allows only written parent opt-out as the way a qualifying student is not enrolled.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-public-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires annual public reporting of advanced course participation and success.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "reporting-by-student-group",
     "text": "The policy requires that the reported participation and success data be broken out by student group.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "cte-pathways",
   "domain": "Career and technical education pathways",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "graduation",
    "postsecondary",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Structured CTE pathways, meaning multi-year sequences with employer partners, work-based learning, and a credential, raise graduation and earnings in causal studies: the MDRC career academies RCT found earnings 11 percent higher eight years after high school (17 percent for young men), Massachusetts and Connecticut regression-discontinuity studies find 7 to 10 point gains in on-time graduation and, in Connecticut, 32 percent higher quarterly earnings for men, and New York City's lottery-based P-TECH evaluation found associate degree completion up 5 percentage points with dual enrollment more than doubled. Effects come from depth in one field, not scattered introductory courses, and are concentrated among young men.",
   "effect": "Career academies: earnings +11 percent per year over 8 years (+17 percent men), attainment unchanged. Massachusetts regional vocational schools: on-time graduation +7 to +10 points. Connecticut technical high schools: graduation +10 points and quarterly earnings +32 percent for men, no effect for women. P-TECH: associate degree +5 points, internships +38 points. Upper-level CTE courses: about +2 percent wages per additional year; introductory courses 0.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Gains are uneven. Career academies did not raise educational attainment, and the Connecticut technical schools had no measurable effect on women. P-TECH's degree effects were concentrated among young men, and its interim credits were mostly in CTE and non-academic subjects. Earnings returns vary widely by field, with health care and IT far above others and some fields near zero (Ecton and Dougherty 2023), and returns accrue only to upper-level coursework in a single field (Kreisman and Stange 2020). The strongest effects come from whole-school or regional CTE models with oversubscribed admissions; a single elective or a program without employer partners should not expect these results. Kemple warned that partial implementation of the academy model may not reproduce the impacts.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Kemple JJ, Willner CJ (2008). Career Academies: Long-Term Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes, Educational Attainment, and Transitions to Adulthood. MDRC.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.mdrc.org/work/publications/career-academies-long-term-impacts-work-education-and-transitions-adulthood",
     "year": 2008,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Nine-site random assignment study, eight years after expected graduation: earnings +11 percent per year, concentrated among young men; no gain in educational attainment",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dougherty SM (2018). The Effect of Career and Technical Education on Human Capital Accumulation: Causal Evidence from Massachusetts. Education Finance and Policy 13(2):119-148.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00224",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Admission to oversubscribed regional vocational-technical high schools raised on-time graduation by 7 to 10 percentage points, with larger suggestive effects for low-income students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Career and Technical Education on Human Capital Accumulation: Causal Evidence from Massachusetts",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Dougherty",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 109,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00224.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Brunner EJ, Dougherty SM, Ross SL (2023). The Effects of Career and Technical Education: Evidence from the Connecticut Technical High School System. Review of Economics and Statistics 105(4):867-882.",
     "doi": "10.1162/rest_a_01098",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Male students admitted to technical high schools were 10 points more likely to graduate and earned 32 percent more per quarter; no effects for female students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Career and Technical Education: Evidence from the Connecticut Technical High School System",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Review of Economics and Statistics",
      "first_author": "Brunner",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 52,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_rest_a_01098.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rosen R, Alterman E, Dixon M (2026). The P-TECH Model: Secondary and Postsecondary Findings From an Evaluation in New York City. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737261467381",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Lottery-based evaluation of grade 9-14 schools with employer partners: dual enrollment 46 vs 20 percent, associate degree completion +5 points, effects concentrated among young men",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The P-TECH Model: Secondary and Postsecondary Findings From an Evaluation in New York City",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Rosen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 0,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737261467381.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rosen R, Alterman E, Treskon L, Parise L, Dixon M, Wuest C (2023). P-TECH 9-14 Pathways to Success: Implementation, Impact, and Cost Findings from the New York City P-TECH 9-14 Schools Evaluation. MDRC.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.mdrc.org/work/publications/p-tech-9-14-pathways-success",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Full report: internships +38 points, dual enrollment 46 vs 20 percent, associate degree +5 points seven years after entry, 13 vs 3 percent among young men",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kreisman D, Stange K (2020). Vocational and Career Tech Education in American High Schools: The Value of Depth Over Breadth. Education Finance and Policy 15(1):11-44.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00266",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "NLSY97 transcripts and earnings: about a 2 percent wage premium per additional year of upper-level vocational coursework, none for introductory courses",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Vocational and Career Tech Education in American High Schools: The Value of Depth Over Breadth",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Kreisman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 58,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00266.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ecton WG, Dougherty SM (2023). Heterogeneity in High School Career and Technical Education Outcomes. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 45(1):157-181.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737221103842",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Earnings, postsecondary and poverty outcomes differ sharply by CTE field and by gender; CTE is not one intervention",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Heterogeneity in High School Career and Technical Education Outcomes",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Ecton",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 42,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737221103842.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hemelt SW, Lenard MA, Paeplow CO (2019). Building bridges to life after high school: Contemporary career academies and student outcomes. Economics of Education Review 68:161-178.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.005",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Lottery admission to a technology-focused career academy in a large diverse district raised high school graduation by about 8 percentage points and college enrollment for males but not females",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Building bridges to life after high school: Contemporary career academies and student outcomes",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Hemelt",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 73,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of graduates who completed a CTE program of study (concentrators: two or more courses in one pathway) and who earned an industry-recognized credential or 12 or more aligned college credits, by race, ethnicity, income, English learner, disability and sex (Perkins V accountability data); share of concentrators with a paid work-based learning placement; concentrator graduation rate and post-graduation employment or enrollment from state wage and Clearinghouse matches.",
   "standard": "Every high school shall offer at least one multi-year CTE pathway aligned to a regional high-wage field with an employer partner, work-based learning, dual credit, and an industry credential; admission to oversubscribed pathways shall be by lottery or objective criteria, and completion and post-graduation outcomes shall be reported by student group.",
   "model_clause": "Each high school shall offer no fewer than two career and technical education programs of study, each consisting of a sequence of at least three courses in one field identified as high-wage and in demand in the most recent regional labor market analysis, each with a named employer or industry partner, an aligned dual-credit agreement with a public college, a paid or credit-bearing work-based learning placement available to every concentrator by grade 12, and preparation for an industry-recognized credential whose exam fee the district shall pay. When a program is oversubscribed, seats shall be assigned by lottery or by published objective criteria, not by staff recommendation. Students shall not be placed in a CTE program of study as a substitute for the college-preparatory course sequence. The Director of Career and Technical Education shall report to the Board by December 1 each year, using Perkins V accountability data: the number of concentrators and completers by program, credentials earned, work-based learning placements, dual credits earned, the graduation rate of concentrators, and employment or postsecondary enrollment of the prior cohort, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, disability status, and sex, and shall recommend closing or redesigning any program whose completers show no employment or enrollment advantage for two consecutive years.",
   "red_flags": [
    "CTE offered only as single-semester electives with no sequence",
    "no employer partner or work-based learning requirement",
    "CTE used as a lower track or as an alternative to college-preparatory courses",
    "placement in CTE by counselor or staff recommendation without objective criteria",
    "credential exam fees charged to students",
    "no reporting of concentrator outcomes by student group or sex"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "career and technical education",
     "CTE",
     "vocational",
     "career academy",
     "career pathway",
     "work-based learning",
     "internship",
     "apprenticeship",
     "industry credential",
     "Perkins"
    ],
    "regex": "career (and|&) technical|\\bCTE\\b|vocational|career (academy|academies|pathway)|work-?based learning|internship|apprenticeship|industry(-recognized)? (credential|certification)|perkins"
   },
   "law_notes": "The Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V, 2018) requires each recipient to conduct a comprehensive local needs assessment every two years, align programs of study to labor market demand, and report concentrator outcomes (graduation, academic proficiency, postsecondary placement, credentials, and participation in nontraditional fields) by subgroup. State graduation requirements increasingly allow CTE sequences or credentials to count toward a diploma endorsement or as a college-and-career-readiness indicator under ESSA.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Career and Technical Education, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Career and Technical Education inventories every high school's current CTE course sequences against the model clause and the most recent regional labor market analysis and reports to the Superintendent which schools have fewer than two qualifying programs of study.",
     "The Director pulls the district's current Perkins V accountability data on concentrators, completers, credentials, dual credits, and work-based learning placements, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, disability status, and sex, and files it as the baseline.",
     "The Superintendent names the employer or industry partner for each existing or planned program of study and the Director opens dual-credit agreement talks with the nearest public college.",
     "The Director publishes the lottery or objective admission criteria for any oversubscribed program within 90 days and the Superintendent ends admission by staff recommendation at the same time.",
     "The Director confirms with each principal that no student is enrolled in a CTE program of study in place of the college-preparatory course sequence and corrects any such schedule."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director brings to the Board, for a vote, a plan under which each high school offers at least two programs of study with three or more sequenced courses, a named partner, a dual-credit agreement, a paid or credit-bearing placement for every grade 12 concentrator, and credential preparation.",
     "The Chief Financial Officer budgets payment of industry credential exam fees for every concentrator and the Director reports the fees paid in the December 1 report.",
     "The Director signs the dual-credit agreements and work-based learning placement agreements for each program and reports how many grade 12 concentrators have a placement by school and student group.",
     "The Director delivers the first December 1 report to the Board using Perkins V data, including the prior cohort's employment or postsecondary enrollment from state wage and Clearinghouse matches."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director delivers the December 1 report each year and recommends closing or redesigning any program whose completers show no employment or enrollment advantage for two consecutive years, and the Board votes on each recommendation.",
     "The Director completes the Perkins V comprehensive local needs assessment every two years and realigns programs of study to the regional labor market analysis.",
     "The Board reviews the disaggregated concentrator data each year for gaps by race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, disability status, and sex and directs the Superintendent to address any program whose completers are drawn disproportionately from one group."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of graduates who completed a CTE program of study (two or more courses in one pathway) and earned an industry-recognized credential or 12 or more aligned college credits; share of concentrators with a paid work-based learning placement; concentrator graduation rate; and employment or postsecondary enrollment of the prior cohort, each by school and student group",
    "baseline": "The district's current Perkins V accountability data for concentrators, completers, credentials, dual credits, and work-based learning placements, by school and student group, pulled in the first 90 days, plus the current count of high schools with fewer than two qualifying programs of study",
    "target": "Within 1 year every high school offers at least two qualifying programs of study and the structural elements (partner, dual-credit agreement, placement, credential preparation, fee payment) are in place; within 3 years the share of graduates who are concentrators with a credential or 12 aligned credits, the share of concentrators with a paid placement, and the concentrator graduation rate rise above baseline in each student group, and completers of every retained program show an employment or enrollment advantage over non-completers in the prior cohort",
    "benchmark": "The research supports direction but not a district-level target for the indicator: causal studies find on-time graduation gains of 7 to 10 points, earnings gains of 11 percent per year over 8 years (17 percent for young men) and 32 percent higher quarterly earnings for men, associate degree completion up 5 points, and internships up 38 points, with effects coming from depth in one field rather than introductory courses; no numeric benchmark exists for the share of graduates who are concentrators with a credential, so the target is directional",
    "report": "Annual report to the Board by December 1 from the Director of Career and Technical Education, using Perkins V accountability data and state wage and Clearinghouse matches, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, disability status, and sex, with a close-or-redesign recommendation for any program showing no completer advantage for two consecutive years"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "multi-year-pathway-high-wage-field",
     "text": "The policy requires every high school to offer at least one multi-year CTE pathway aligned to a regional high-wage field.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "employer-partner-work-based-learning",
     "text": "The policy requires each pathway to include an employer partner and work-based learning.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "dual-credit-industry-credential",
     "text": "The policy requires each pathway to include dual credit and an industry credential.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "lottery-or-objective-admission",
     "text": "The policy requires admission to oversubscribed pathways to be by lottery or objective criteria.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "outcomes-reported-by-student-group",
     "text": "The policy requires completion and post-graduation outcomes to be reported by student group.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "chronic-absence",
   "domain": "Chronic absence response",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Missing 10 percent or more of school days lowers achievement and engagement from kindergarten on, and the share of students chronically absent nearly doubled after the pandemic. Controlled studies show that early, supportive, family-facing responses (mailed and texted attendance information, caseworkers who remove material barriers, structured adult mentoring) cut chronic absence by roughly 8 to 23 percent at modest cost, while no rigorous US study shows that fines, prosecution or court referral improve attendance.",
   "effect": "Family mailings and texts: chronic absence -10% to -15% (2 to 7 points); school-based material-needs caseworkers: -8%; Check & Connect mentoring: -4.2 days (-23%) in grades 5-7, nothing in grades 1-4; pooled attendance interventions small (g = 0.09 to 0.25)",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Average effects are small and uneven. Eklund et al. (2022) pooled g = 0.25 across 22 controlled studies and the family-school partnership category's confidence interval included zero; Li et al. (2026) pooled g = 0.09 across 13 post-2020 studies, with weaker effects in majority students-of-color samples. Check & Connect had no detectable effect in grades 1 to 4 and none on test scores or GPA; texting cut chronic absence but not achievement (Heppen et al. 2020). On punishment: Maynard et al. (2012) found court-based truancy programs did not differ from school- or community-based ones on short-term attendance, and an Australian RCT of a police-school partnership raised attendance, so 'punitive responses never work' overstates the record. What the evidence does support is narrower: no rigorous US study shows fines or prosecution improve attendance; Texas truancy filings fell about 90 percent after 2015 decriminalization with no drop in statewide attendance (descriptive only); and in a 131,312-student RCT the standard legalistic, punitively worded truancy notice was outperformed by a plain, supportive one.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Eklund K, Burns MK, Oyen K, DeMarchena S, McCollom EM (2022). Addressing chronic absenteeism in schools: a meta-analysis of evidence-based interventions. School Psychology Review 51(1):95-111.",
     "doi": "10.1080/2372966X.2020.1789436",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1789436",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "22 controlled studies; attendance interventions yield small pooled effects (between-group g = 0.25), family-school partnership CI includes zero",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Addressing Chronic Absenteeism in Schools: A Meta-Analysis of Evidence-Based Interventions",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Eklund",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 75,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_2372966X_2020_1789436.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Li D, Singh S, Jeldi N, Chang S, Zhu M, Dailey K, Karabukayeva A, Cai C (2026). What works to keep students in school? A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce school absenteeism. Behavioral Sciences 16(5):697.",
     "doi": "10.3390/bs16050697",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050697",
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "13 RCT and quasi-experimental studies 2020-2025; pooled g = 0.09, heterogeneity high, stronger effects in single-school implementations",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "What Works to Keep Students in School? A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce School Absenteeism",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "Behavioral Sciences",
      "first_author": "Li",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3390_bs16050697.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rogers T, Feller A (2018). Reducing student absences at scale by targeting parents' misbeliefs. Nature Human Behaviour 2(5):335-342.",
     "doi": "10.1038/s41562-018-0328-1",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0328-1",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "mailed absence information to 28,080 households cut chronic absence about 10 percent at roughly $6 per added day of attendance",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reducing student absences at scale by targeting parents’ misbeliefs",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Nature Human Behaviour",
      "first_author": "Rogers",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 187,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Robinson CD, Lee MG, Dearing E, Rogers T (2018). Reducing student absenteeism in the early grades by targeting parental beliefs. American Educational Research Journal 55(6):1163-1192.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831218772274",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218772274",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "K-5 mailings across 10 districts decreased chronic absenteeism by 15 percent",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reducing Student Absenteeism in the Early Grades by Targeting Parental Beliefs",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Robinson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 144,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831218772274.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lasky-Fink J, Robinson CD, Chang HN, Rogers T (2021). Using behavioral insights to improve school administrative communications: the case of truancy notifications. Educational Researcher 50(7):442-450.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189X211000749",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211000749",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "plain, supportive truancy notices reduced absences 40 percent more than the standard legalistic, punitively worded notice (N = 131,312)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Using Behavioral Insights to Improve School Administrative Communications: The Case of Truancy Notifications",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Lasky-Fink",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 23,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189X211000749.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Guryan J, Christenson S, Cureton A, Lai I, Ludwig J, Schwarz C, Shirey E, Turner MC (2021). The effect of mentoring on school attendance and academic outcomes: a randomized evaluation of the Check & Connect program. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 40(3):841-882.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22264",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22264",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "structured monitoring and mentoring cut absences 4.2 days (22.9 percent) in grades 5-7, no effect in grades 1-4 or on achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Mentoring on School Attendance and Academic Outcomes: A Randomized Evaluation of the Check & Connect Program",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Guryan",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 38,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22264.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sokol R, Degli Esposti M, Victor BG, Kernsmith P, Medina Del Toro V, Heinze J, Portugal J, Grinnell R, Gernaat E (2025). A school-based material needs intervention for chronic absenteeism: a state-wide staggered interrupted time series analysis. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 80(3):174-181.",
     "doi": "10.1136/jech-2025-224567",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2025-224567",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "caseworkers placed in 160 Michigan schools to address material needs reduced chronic absence 7.9 percent (IRR 0.92)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A school-based material needs intervention for chronic absenteeism: a state-wide staggered interrupted time series analysis",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health",
      "first_author": "Sokol",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_jech_2025_224567.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Maynard BR, McCrea KT, Pigott TD, Kelly MS (2012). Indicated truancy interventions: effects on school attendance among chronic truant students. Campbell Systematic Reviews 8(1).",
     "doi": "10.4073/csr.2012.10",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2012.10",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "28 studies; indicated truancy programs add about 4.7 days of attendance short term; court-based delivery not better than school- or community-based; no long-term outcomes measured",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Indicated Truancy Interventions: Effects on School Attendance among Chronic Truant Students",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World",
      "first_author": "Maynard",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 63,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_4073_csr_2012_10.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Mazerolle L, Antrobus E, Bennett S, Eggins E (2017). Reducing truancy and fostering a willingness to attend school: results from a randomized trial of a police-school partnership program. Prevention Science 18(4):469-480.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s11121-017-0771-7",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-017-0771-7",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: a non-punitive police-school partnership in Australia improved attendance, so enforcement partners are not inherently ineffective",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reducing Truancy and Fostering a Willingness to Attend School: Results from a Randomized Trial of a Police-School Partnership Program",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Prevention Science",
      "first_author": "Mazerolle",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 39,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gottfried MA (2014). Chronic absenteeism and its effects on students' academic and socioemotional outcomes. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 19(2):53-75.",
     "doi": "10.1080/10824669.2014.962696",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2014.962696",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "chronic absence in kindergarten reduces math and reading achievement and educational and social engagement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Chronic Absenteeism and Its Effects on Students’ Academic and Socioemotional Outcomes",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR)",
      "first_author": "Gottfried",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 328,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_10824669_2014_962696.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dee TS (2024). Higher chronic absenteeism threatens academic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121(3):e2312249121.",
     "doi": "10.1073/pnas.2312249121",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2312249121",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "chronic absence rose 13.5 points (91 percent) between 2018-19 and 2021-22, about 6.5 million additional students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Higher chronic absenteeism threatens academic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
      "first_author": "Dee",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 109,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1073_pnas_2312249121.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gubbels J, van der Put CE, Assink M (2019). Risk factors for school absenteeism and dropout: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48(9):1637-1667.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10964-019-01072-5",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01072-5",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "75 studies; low parent-school involvement, internalizing and externalizing problems and negative attitude to school are large-effect risk domains for absence",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Risk Factors for School Absenteeism and Dropout: A Meta-Analytic Review",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Youth and Adolescence",
      "first_author": "Gubbels",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 597,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1007_s10964_019_01072_5.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cook PJ, Dodge KA, Gifford EJ, Schulting AB (2017). A new program to prevent primary school absenteeism: results of a pilot study in five schools. Children and Youth Services Review 82:262-270.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.09.017",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.09.017",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "teacher-led early truancy prevention (home visits plus tiered response) in the primary grades is feasible and reduced absences in a pilot",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A new program to prevent primary school absenteeism: Results of a pilot study in five schools",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Children and Youth Services Review",
      "first_author": "Cook",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 87,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Heppen JB, Kurki A, Brown S (2020). Can texting parents improve attendance in elementary school? A test of an adaptive messaging strategy. NCEE 2020-006. Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/use-work/resource-library/report/evaluation-report/can-texting-parents-improve-attendance-elementary-school-test-adaptive-messaging-strategy",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "about 26,000 grade 3-5 students; all four text versions reduced chronic absence (2 to 7 points), none improved achievement; cost $6.90 to $8.53 per student",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Balfanz R, Byrnes V (2012). The importance of being in school: a report on absenteeism in the nation's public schools. Everyone Graduates Center, Johns Hopkins University.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.attendanceworks.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/FINALChronicAbsenteeismReport_May16.pdf",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "first national estimate that 10 to 15 percent of students are chronically absent; sets the 10 percent threshold used in policy",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Attendance Works (2024). 3 tiers of intervention: a multi-tiered system of support for attendance.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.attendanceworks.org/chronic-absence/addressing-chronic-absence/3-tiers-of-intervention/",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "practice framework: foundational supports and Tier 1 prevention for all, Tier 2 personalized outreach at 10 to 19 percent missed, Tier 3 intensive case management at 20 percent or more",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Percent of enrolled students missing 10 percent or more of enrolled days (the state chronic absence measure in the EDFacts or state report card file), reported by school, grade and subgroup; the share of chronically absent students who received a documented Tier 2 contact within 10 school days of crossing the threshold; and the number of truancy referrals filed, each tracked monthly.",
   "standard": "Policy requires monthly identification of every student at or trending toward 10 percent absence, a documented supportive family contact and barrier assessment before any penalty, a written plan at Tier 2 and case management at Tier 3, and quarterly public reporting by building and subgroup; court or truancy referral is permitted only after the supportive steps are documented.",
   "model_clause": "Chronic absence shall be defined as missing 10 percent or more of enrolled school days for any reason, excused or unexcused. Each principal shall review attendance data at least monthly and shall identify every student who has missed 10 percent or more of enrolled days, or who has missed three or more days in any 20-day period. Within 10 school days of identification the school shall make a documented two-way contact with the student's family, in the family's preferred language, that states the number of days missed, asks what is making attendance hard, and offers help; this contact shall be supportive and shall not threaten penalties. A student who remains at or above 10 percent after that contact shall receive a written attendance plan developed with the family within 20 school days, naming a staff member responsible for weekly follow-up. A student who misses 20 percent or more, or whose attendance does not improve under a plan, shall be assigned to a case manager who shall assess transportation, health, housing, food, safety and school-climate barriers and connect the family with services. No student shall be referred to truancy court, cited, fined, suspended, excluded from activities or denied credit for absence until the contact, plan and barrier assessment above are documented in the student information system. The Superintendent shall report to the Board each quarter, by school, grade and subgroup: the chronic absence rate, the share of identified students who received a documented contact within 10 school days, the number of attendance plans opened, and the number of truancy referrals filed. The Superintendent shall also publish these figures on the district website within 30 days of each report.",
   "red_flags": [
    "truancy referral, citation or fine triggered automatically at a fixed number of unexcused absences with no supportive contact first",
    "loss of credit, grade reduction or denial of course credit for absences",
    "out-of-school suspension or exclusion from activities as a consequence for absence",
    "attendance tracked only as average daily attendance or only unexcused absences, with no chronic absence (10 percent, all absences) measure",
    "no named role responsible for outreach and no reporting frequency",
    "attendance letters written in legal or threatening language with no offer of help"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "chronic absence",
     "chronic absenteeism",
     "attendance",
     "truancy",
     "truant",
     "unexcused absence",
     "absences",
     "compulsory attendance",
     "attendance officer",
     "attendance plan"
    ],
    "regex": "chronic(ally)? absen|truan|unexcused absen|compulsory (school )?attendance|attendance (officer|plan|intervention|team)"
   },
   "law_notes": "ESSA requires states to report chronic absenteeism on report cards and most states use it as a school-quality indicator. Every state has a compulsory attendance statute, and many still define truancy as a status offense with court jurisdiction over students or parents; Texas HB 2398 (2015) decriminalized failure to attend school and requires districts to apply truancy prevention measures before court referral. Several states require supportive interventions before court referral (for example Connecticut General Statutes 10-198a); California Education Code 60901 defines a chronic absentee as a pupil absent 10 percent or more of enrolled days.",
   "stakes": 5,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with each building principal responsible for monthly identification and the required family contacts",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent directs the student information system administrator to build a monthly report flagging every student at or above 10 percent of enrolled days missed, or with three or more absences in any 20-day period, broken out by school, grade and subgroup.",
     "The Superintendent adds fields to the student information system so each school can document the two-way family contact, the attendance plan, the barrier assessment and the case manager assignment for each identified student.",
     "Each principal names a staff member responsible for monthly attendance review and weekly follow-up on open attendance plans, and the Superintendent trains those staff on the supportive, non-threatening contact script and on contact in the family's preferred language.",
     "The Superintendent suspends any existing truancy referral, citation, fine, suspension or credit-denial practice for absence until the contact, plan and barrier-assessment documentation is in place at every school.",
     "The Superintendent pulls the prior year's chronic absence rate from the state report card file, by school, grade and subgroup, as the baseline for the first quarterly report."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal runs the identification report monthly and makes the documented two-way family contact within 10 school days of identification, then opens a written plan within 20 school days for any student still at or above 10 percent.",
     "The Superintendent assigns a case manager to every student at 20 percent or above, or whose attendance does not improve under a plan, and the case manager documents the transportation, health, housing, food, safety and school-climate assessment and the referrals made.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the quarterly report to the Board with the chronic absence rate, the share of identified students contacted within 10 school days, the number of plans opened and the number of truancy referrals filed, by school, grade and subgroup, and publishes it on the district website within 30 days.",
     "The Superintendent audits a sample of every truancy referral filed in year one to confirm the contact, plan and barrier assessment were documented before the referral."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "Each principal continues the monthly review, and the Superintendent continues quarterly reporting to the Board and website publication within 30 days of each report.",
     "The Board reviews the quarterly report each quarter and asks the Superintendent to explain any school where fewer identified students received a documented contact within 10 school days than in the prior quarter.",
     "The Superintendent reviews the policy and the referral audit annually and reports to the Board whether any truancy referral was filed without the required documented supportive steps."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Percent of enrolled students missing 10 percent or more of enrolled days (the state chronic absence measure in the EDFacts or state report card file), by school, grade and subgroup; the share of identified students who received a documented two-way family contact within 10 school days; and the number of truancy referrals filed, each tracked monthly and reported quarterly.",
    "baseline": "The prior school year's chronic absence rate from the state report card file, by school, grade and subgroup, plus the number of truancy referrals filed in that year; the contact-within-10-school-days share starts at zero because it was not previously tracked.",
    "target": "Within 1 year every school reports the share of identified students contacted within 10 school days rising each quarter, with zero truancy referrals filed without a documented contact, plan and barrier assessment; within 1 to 3 years the chronic absence rate falls below the baseline in every school and subgroup, with a reduction in the range of 8 to 15 percent of the baseline rate consistent with the family-contact and caseworker studies.",
    "benchmark": "Controlled studies cited in the entry: family mailings and texts cut chronic absence 10 to 15 percent (2 to 7 points); school-based material-needs caseworkers cut it 8 percent; Check & Connect mentoring cut absences 4.2 days (23 percent) in grades 5 to 7 and had no effect in grades 1 to 4; pooled attendance interventions show small effects (g = 0.09 to 0.25). The entry gives no benchmark for the contact-within-10-days share or for referral counts, so those targets are directional.",
    "report": "The Superintendent reports to the Board each quarter and publishes the figures on the district website within 30 days of each report; the Board reviews the annual chronic absence rate against the baseline at the end of each school year."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "supportive-contact-before-penalty",
     "text": "The policy requires a documented supportive family contact and barrier assessment before any penalty for absence.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "monthly-identification",
     "text": "The policy requires monthly identification of every student at or trending toward 10 percent absence.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "tier2-written-plan",
     "text": "The policy requires a written plan for students at Tier 2.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "tier3-case-management",
     "text": "The policy requires case management for students at Tier 3.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "quarterly-public-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires quarterly public reporting of attendance by building and subgroup.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "referral-only-after-support",
     "text": "The policy permits court or truancy referral only after the supportive steps are documented.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "pre-k",
   "domain": "District pre-kindergarten",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "discipline",
    "equity-gaps",
    "postsecondary"
   ],
   "finding": "Every rigorous evaluation finds public pre-K raises school readiness at kindergarten entry (Boston 0.4 to 0.6 SD in language and math, Tulsa large gains, Tennessee gains at end of pre-K), but what happens next depends on the program and the schools that follow: Boston's lottery cohorts showed no later test-score gains yet higher high school graduation, SAT taking and college enrollment and less juvenile incarceration, Tulsa's cohorts kept middle school math and course-taking advantages, and Tennessee's statewide program, a randomized trial, left participants worse off than controls on achievement, discipline and special education by sixth grade. A meta-analysis of 22 causal studies finds average long-run reductions in special education placement (8 points) and grade retention (8 points) and higher graduation (11 points).",
   "effect": "Kindergarten entry: +0.4 to +0.6 SD (Boston); long run: special education -8.1 points, grade retention -8.3 points, high school graduation +11.4 points (meta-analysis); Boston lottery: college enrollment up, juvenile incarceration down, test scores null; Tennessee RCT: sixth-grade achievement, discipline and special education all worse than controls",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "The only large randomized trial of a scaled state program (Tennessee Voluntary Pre-K, n 2,990) found that children offered pre-K had lower state test scores in grades 3 through 6, more disciplinary infractions, worse attendance and more special education designations than wait-listed controls. Test-score fadeout by grade 3 is the norm even in positive studies (Bailey et al. 2017), and the Boston long-run gains came from a program with coached teachers, a shared curriculum and small classes that most districts do not replicate. The Tulsa evidence relies on propensity-score weighting, not randomization. Pre-K is among the most expensive grades to add, and poor-quality programs can be worse than the child-care arrangements they replace.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Durkin K, Lipsey MW, Farran DC, Wiesen SE (2022). Effects of a statewide pre-kindergarten program on children's achievement and behavior through sixth grade. Developmental Psychology 58(3):470-484.",
     "doi": "10.1037/dev0001301",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Tennessee VPK randomized trial (n 2,990): pre-K offer lowered state test scores in grades 3 to 6, with more disciplinary infractions, worse attendance and more special education",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of a statewide pre-kindergarten program on children’s achievement and behavior through sixth grade.",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Developmental Psychology",
      "first_author": "Durkin",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 138,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_dev0001301.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lipsey MW, Farran DC, Durkin K (2018). Effects of the Tennessee Prekindergarten Program on children's achievement and behavior through third grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 45:155-176.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.03.005",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Same trial through grade 3: positive end-of-pre-K effects reversed by kindergarten and controls surpassed participants by third grade",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of the Tennessee Prekindergarten Program on children’s achievement and behavior through third grade",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Early Childhood Research Quarterly",
      "first_author": "Lipsey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 186,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1016_j_ecresq_2018_03_005.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gray-Lobe G, Pathak PA, Walters CR (2023). The long-term effects of universal preschool in Boston. Quarterly Journal of Economics 138(1):363-411.",
     "doi": "10.1093/qje/qjac036",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Boston admissions lotteries: preschool raised high school graduation, SAT taking and college attendance and reduced disciplinary measures and juvenile incarceration, with no effect on state test scores",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Long-Term Effects of Universal Preschool in Boston",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "The Quarterly Journal of Economics",
      "first_author": "Gray-Lobe",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 128,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1093_qje_qjac036.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Weiland C, Yoshikawa H (2013). Impacts of a prekindergarten program on children's mathematics, language, literacy, executive function, and emotional skills. Child Development 84(6):2112-2130.",
     "doi": "10.1111/cdev.12099",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Boston Public Schools pre-K: moderate to large impacts on language, literacy, numeracy and math and small impacts on executive function at kindergarten entry",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Impacts of a Prekindergarten Program on Children's Mathematics, Language, Literacy, Executive Function, and Emotional Skills",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Weiland",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 705,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_cdev_12099.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gormley WT Jr, Phillips D, Gayer T (2008). Preschool programs can boost school readiness. Science 320(5884):1723-1724.",
     "doi": "10.1126/science.1156019",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2008,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Tulsa universal pre-K: large gains in pre-reading, pre-writing and pre-math at kindergarten entry across income groups",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Preschool Programs Can Boost School Readiness",
      "year": 2008,
      "journal": "Science",
      "first_author": "Gormley",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 259,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gormley WT Jr, Phillips D, Anderson S (2018). The effects of Tulsa's pre-K program on middle school student performance. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 37(1):63-87.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22023",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Propensity-weighted follow-up: enduring effects on middle school math scores, honors course enrollment and grade retention",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Tulsa's Pre‐K Program on Middle School Student Performance",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Gormley,",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 82,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22023.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Amadon S, Gormley WT, Claessens A, Magnuson K, Hummel-Price D, Romm K (2022). Does early childhood education help to improve high school outcomes? Results from Tulsa. Child Development 93(4):e379-e395.",
     "doi": "10.1111/cdev.13752",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Tulsa pre-K attendees in grade 11 missed less school, failed fewer courses and took more AP or IB courses, but had no higher test scores or grades",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does early childhood education help to improve high school outcomes? Results from Tulsa",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Amadon",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 42,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_cdev_13752.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "McCoy DC, Yoshikawa H, Ziol-Guest KM, Duncan GJ, Schindler HS, Magnuson K, Yang R, Koepp A, Shonkoff JP (2017). Impacts of early childhood education on medium- and long-term educational outcomes. Educational Researcher 46(8):474-487.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189X17737739",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "22 experimental and quasi-experimental studies: ECE reduces special education placement 8.1 points and grade retention 8.3 points and raises high school graduation 11.4 points",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Impacts of Early Childhood Education on Medium- and Long-Term Educational Outcomes",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "McCoy",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 287,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189X17737739.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bailey D, Duncan GJ, Odgers CL, Yu W (2017). Persistence and fadeout in the impacts of child and adolescent interventions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 10(1):7-39.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2016.1232459",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Explains why early test-score gains fade and which features (skill-building, sustaining environments in later grades) predict persistence",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Persistence and Fadeout in the Impacts of Child and Adolescent Interventions",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Bailey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 555,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2016_1232459.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Phillips DA, Lipsey MW, Dodge KA, et al. (2017). Puzzling it out: The current state of scientific knowledge on pre-kindergarten effects. A consensus statement. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution and Duke University.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.brookings.edu/articles/puzzling-it-out-the-current-state-of-scientific-knowledge-on-pre-kindergarten-effects/",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Consensus of leading pre-K researchers: readiness gains are reliable, persistence varies, and curriculum, teacher coaching and the quality of later grades matter",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Puma M, Bell S, Cook R, Heid C, et al. (2010). Head Start Impact Study: Final report. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.acf.hhs.gov/opre/report/head-start-impact-study-final-report-executive-summary",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "National randomized study of Head Start: readiness gains at age 4 largely faded by the end of first grade",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of age-eligible four-year-olds enrolled in district pre-K, by income and attendance area (enrollment file); kindergarten entry assessment results for pre-K attendees versus non-attendees by subgroup; pre-K class size, teacher certification and curriculum adoption; third-grade reading proficiency, grade retention and special education referral rates for the pre-K cohort tracked longitudinally.",
   "standard": "District pre-K uses an adopted evidence-based curriculum, certified lead teachers with ongoing coaching, class sizes of 20 or fewer with two adults, and a full instructional day, and the district tracks each pre-K cohort through third grade and reports readiness and later outcomes by subgroup.",
   "model_clause": "Any pre-kindergarten program the district operates shall use a Board-adopted curriculum with published evidence of effectiveness, employ a lead teacher holding early childhood certification in every classroom, provide at least two adults for every classroom of no more than twenty (20) children, offer a full instructional day of the same length as kindergarten, and provide each teacher at least monthly instructional coaching. Enrollment priority shall go to children eligible for free or reduced-price meals, English learners and children with identified disabilities. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by November 1 of each year the number of age-eligible children enrolled and wait-listed by attendance area and subgroup, class sizes, teacher certification, and fall kindergarten entry assessment results for former pre-K attendees compared with non-attendees, and shall report by August 1 of each year the third-grade reading proficiency, grade retention and special education referral rates of the cohort that attended district pre-K four years earlier compared with the district average.",
   "red_flags": [
    "pre-K classes above 20 children or with a single adult",
    "lead teachers without early childhood certification",
    "no adopted curriculum or coaching provision",
    "half-day pre-K only",
    "enrollment by first-come first-served with no priority for low-income or English learner children",
    "no longitudinal reporting on pre-K cohorts"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "pre-kindergarten",
     "pre-K",
     "preschool",
     "early childhood",
     "four-year-old",
     "Head Start"
    ],
    "regex": "pre[- ]?k(indergarten)?\\b|preschool|early childhood (education|program)|head start"
   },
   "law_notes": "Federal Head Start (42 USC 9831 et seq.) serves children below the poverty line with its own performance standards (class size 20 or fewer, two staff). State pre-K programs set eligibility, class size and teacher credential rules; 44 states and the District of Columbia fund some pre-K, and universal programs exist in Oklahoma, Florida, Georgia, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin and the District of Columbia. IDEA Part B section 619 requires preschool special education for eligible three- to five-year-olds in every district.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through the Director of Early Childhood Education",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Early Childhood Education inventories every district pre-K classroom against the clause within 60 days, recording curriculum in use, lead teacher certification, class size, adult-to-child ratio, instructional day length and coaching frequency, and reports the gaps to the Superintendent.",
     "The Superintendent brings the Board a list of candidate curricula with published evidence of effectiveness within 90 days, and the Board adopts one by vote.",
     "The Director of Enrollment builds an enrollment priority process that ranks applicants by free or reduced-price meal eligibility, English learner status and identified disability, and publishes it for the next application window.",
     "The Director of Assessment designates the fall kindergarten entry assessment and the data fields needed to flag each kindergartner as a former district pre-K attendee or non-attendee by subgroup."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Human Resources fills every lead teacher position with an early childhood certified teacher or places uncertified incumbents on a dated certification plan before the first day of the next school year.",
     "The Director of Early Childhood Education assigns an instructional coach to each pre-K teacher and schedules at least monthly coaching visits, logging each visit by classroom.",
     "The Superintendent reschedules any classroom not yet on a full instructional day equal to kindergarten and caps enrollment at 20 children with two adults before the next school year opens.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first November 1 report on enrollment, wait lists, class sizes, certification and kindergarten entry results by attendance area and subgroup."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Assessment maintains a longitudinal cohort file linking each pre-K cohort to its third-grade reading proficiency, grade retention and special education referral records.",
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board each November 1 on enrollment and kindergarten readiness and each August 1 on the third-grade outcomes of the cohort that attended pre-K four years earlier compared with the district average."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Kindergarten entry assessment results for former district pre-K attendees versus non-attendees by subgroup, and third-grade reading proficiency, grade retention and special education referral rates for each tracked pre-K cohort compared with the district average.",
    "baseline": "The first November 1 report establishes the kindergarten entry gap between attendees and non-attendees by subgroup, and the first August 1 report establishes the third-grade reading, retention and special education referral rates for the earliest cohort that can be linked.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, every pre-K classroom meets all five program conditions in the clause (adopted curriculum, certified lead teacher, 20 or fewer children with two adults, full day, monthly coaching). Within 1 to 3 years, former pre-K attendees score higher on the fall kindergarten entry assessment than non-attendees in every reported subgroup, and the tracked cohort shows grade retention and special education referral rates below the district average with third-grade reading proficiency at or above it, with no cohort trending worse than the district average on any of the three measures.",
    "benchmark": "Rigorous evaluations show kindergarten entry gains of 0.4 to 0.6 SD (Boston), and a meta-analysis of 22 causal studies finds special education placement down 8.1 points, grade retention down 8.3 points and high school graduation up 11.4 points; the Tennessee randomized trial, where participants were worse off by sixth grade on achievement, discipline and special education, is the warning case the cohort tracking is designed to catch early.",
    "report": "Superintendent reports to the Board each November 1 (enrollment, wait lists, class size, certification, kindergarten entry results by subgroup) and each August 1 (third-grade reading, retention and special education referral for the cohort that attended four years earlier versus the district average), with results published on the district website."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "evidence-based-curriculum",
     "text": "The policy requires district pre-K to use an adopted evidence-based curriculum.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "certified-teachers-coaching",
     "text": "The policy requires certified lead teachers in district pre-K with ongoing coaching.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "class-size-20-two-adults",
     "text": "The policy caps district pre-K class sizes at 20 or fewer children with two adults in each class.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "full-instructional-day",
     "text": "The policy requires district pre-K to run a full instructional day.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "track-cohorts-through-third-grade",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to track each pre-K cohort through third grade.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "report-outcomes-by-subgroup",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to report pre-K readiness and later outcomes by subgroup.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "dual-enrollment-and-early-college",
   "domain": "Dual enrollment and early college",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "postsecondary",
    "graduation",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Two independent lottery-based randomized studies of early college high schools (North Carolina, followed 17 years, and the AIR national study, followed six years past graduation) find higher high school graduation, college enrollment, and degree completion, with very large effects on associate degrees and bachelor's gains for low-income and first-generation students. A Tennessee RCT of a dual-credit math course shifted students from remedial to precalculus and AP math and from two-year to four-year colleges, though it did not raise overall college enrollment. The What Works Clearinghouse rates dual enrollment as having positive effects on degree attainment, credit accumulation, and completing school.",
   "effect": "Early college: college enrollment +7 percentage points (84 vs 77 percent at year 10 in NC), bachelor's +5 points (30 vs 25 percent), associate degree effects very large; AIR study: enrollment and degree completion up within six years. Dual-credit math RCT: no change in overall enrollment, shift toward four-year colleges for mid-achievers. Observational dual enrollment: degree attainment gains largest for low-income students.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Early college effects come from a whole-school model with college-going culture, supports, and a community college partner on site; a la carte dual enrollment courses are not the same intervention. The Tennessee RCT of a single dual-credit course found no effect on overall college enrollment and only limited evidence of better college math performance. Dual enrollment and AP participation gaps by race exist in most districts, and gaps widen where seats expand without equity supports (Xu, Solanki and Fink 2021). Credits earned may not transfer to the student's eventual college, and some AIR early college impacts were stronger for students with higher prior achievement. Early college GPA at completion and double-majoring did not differ from controls.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Edmunds JA, Unlu F, Phillips V, Glennie E, Mulhern C (2024). The Impact of Early Colleges on Postsecondary Performance and Completion. AERA Open 10.",
     "doi": "10.1177/23328584241290772",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "17-year lottery study in North Carolina: positive effects on degree completion, very large on associate degrees, bachelor's gains for low-income and first-generation students; no GPA difference",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Early Colleges on Postsecondary Performance and Completion",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Edmunds",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_23328584241290772.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Edmunds JA, Unlu F, Furey J, Glennie E, Arshavsky N (2020). What Happens When You Combine High School and College? The Impact of the Early College Model on Postsecondary Performance and Completion. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 42(2):257-278.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373720912249",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Lottery winners attained postsecondary credentials at higher rates and faster, with comparable performance at four-year institutions",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "What Happens When You Combine High School and College? The Impact of the Early College Model on Postsecondary Performance and Completion",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Edmunds",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 49,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373720912249.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Edmunds JA, Unlu F, Glennie E, Bernstein L, Fesler L, Furey J, Arshavsky N (2017). Smoothing the Transition to Postsecondary Education: The Impact of the Early College Model. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 10(2):297-325.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2016.1191574",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Early college raised college credits earned in high school, high school graduation, and postsecondary enrollment",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Smoothing the Transition to Postsecondary Education: The Impact of the Early College Model",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Edmunds",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 106,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2016_1191574.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Song M, Zeiser K, Atchison D, Brodziak de los Reyes I (2021). Early College, Continued Success: Longer-Term Impact of Early College High Schools. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 14(1):116-142.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2020.1862374",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "AIR national admission-lottery study: lottery winners more likely to enroll in college and complete associate and bachelor's degrees within six years of expected graduation, with effects not varying by demographics",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Early College, Continued Success: Longer-Term Impact of Early College High Schools",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Song",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 68,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2020_1862374.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hemelt SW, Schwartz NL, Dynarski SM (2020). Dual-Credit Courses and the Road to College: Experimental Evidence from Tennessee. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 39(3):686-719.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22180",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Statewide RCT of a dual-credit advanced algebra course: less remedial math, more precalculus and AP math, shift from two-year to four-year colleges, no change in overall college enrollment",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Dual‐Credit Courses and the Road to College: Experimental Evidence from Tennessee",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Hemelt",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 36,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22180.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "An BP (2013). The Impact of Dual Enrollment on College Degree Attainment: Do Low-SES Students Benefit? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 35(1):57-75.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373712461933",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "National longitudinal data: dual enrollment raises degree attainment most for low-income students; robust to large unobserved confounders",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Dual Enrollment on College Degree Attainment",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "An",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 153,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373712461933.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rosen R, Alterman E, Dixon M (2026). The P-TECH Model: Secondary and Postsecondary Findings From an Evaluation in New York City. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737261467381",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "New York City lottery evaluation of grade 9-14 early college CTE schools: dual enrollment 46 vs 20 percent, more credits, associate degree completion up 5 percentage points",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The P-TECH Model: Secondary and Postsecondary Findings From an Evaluation in New York City",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Rosen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 0,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737261467381.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Xu D, Solanki S, Fink J (2021). College Acceleration for All? Mapping Racial Gaps in Advanced Placement and Dual Enrollment Participation. American Educational Research Journal 58(5):954-992.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831221991138",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Racial gaps in dual enrollment exist in most districts and widen where access expands without equity supports",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "College Acceleration for All? Mapping Racial Gaps in Advanced Placement and Dual Enrollment Participation",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Xu",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 84,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831221991138.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "What Works Clearinghouse (2017). Dual Enrollment Programs: Intervention Report. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/InterventionReport/671",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Five studies meeting standards: positive effects on degree attainment, credit accumulation, completing school, access and enrollment, and high school achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of graduates who earned at least one transferable college credit in high school and share who earned 12 or more, by race, ethnicity, income, English learner and disability status (state report card and National Student Clearinghouse); dual enrollment course pass rates; share of credits that transferred; postsecondary enrollment and completion of dual enrollment participants versus non-participants.",
   "standard": "Every high school shall offer dual enrollment with a public college partner at no cost to students, with automatic eligibility for students meeting an objective threshold, transportation and textbooks provided, and participation and credit outcomes reported annually by student group; districts of sufficient size shall operate or partner with an early college pathway.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall maintain a written agreement with at least one accredited public college under which every high school offers dual-credit courses, on the high school campus or online, in general education subjects that transfer to the state's public universities. Tuition, fees, textbooks, and transportation for dual-credit courses shall be paid by the district or the partner college, and no student shall be charged. Any student who meets the partner college's placement standard or the state standard on the high school assessment shall be eligible, and principals shall notify eligible students and their parents or guardians in writing by March 1 for the following year. The district shall operate, or partner with, at least one early college pathway in which students can earn an associate degree or 60 transferable credits by the end of grade 12 or 13, with enrollment by lottery when oversubscribed. The Director of College and Career Readiness shall report to the Board by November 1 each year: dual-credit participation, courses passed, credits earned and credits transferred, and early college enrollment and completion, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, together with postsecondary enrollment of the prior graduating class from the National Student Clearinghouse.",
   "red_flags": [
    "students pay tuition, fees, or textbook costs for dual enrollment",
    "dual enrollment limited to students with a minimum GPA above the college's own placement standard",
    "counselor or principal approval required with no objective criteria",
    "dual enrollment offered only off campus with no transportation",
    "no articulation agreement or no record of credit transfer",
    "no reporting of participation by student group"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "dual enrollment",
     "dual credit",
     "concurrent enrollment",
     "early college",
     "college credit",
     "articulation agreement",
     "P-TECH",
     "running start"
    ],
    "regex": "dual[- ](enrollment|credit)|concurrent enrollment|early college|college[- ]credit|articulation agreement|P-?TECH|running start|middle college"
   },
   "law_notes": "Nearly every state has a dual enrollment statute; eligibility rules, funding, and who pays tuition vary by state (for example Washington's Running Start under RCW 28A.600.300 and Texas Education Code 28.009). Title IV of ESSA permits Title I and Title IV-A funds for dual enrollment and early college, and Perkins V allows CTE funds for dual credit in CTE programs of study. Several states require that dual-credit general education courses transfer to public universities.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of College and Career Readiness",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of College and Career Readiness inventories every high school's current dual-credit offerings, partner agreements, student charges, and eligibility rules within 30 days.",
     "The Superintendent opens negotiations with at least one accredited public college on a written agreement covering courses, tuition and fee payment, textbooks, transportation, and transferability within 60 days.",
     "The Chief Financial Officer identifies Title I, Title IV-A, Perkins V, and state dual enrollment funds that can pay tuition, textbooks, and transportation and presents a cost estimate to the Board within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Research and Assessment builds the disaggregated dual-credit participation, pass, credit, and transfer report template and confirms National Student Clearinghouse access within 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent brings the signed college partnership agreement to the Board for approval so that every high school offers transferable general education dual-credit courses, on campus or online, in the next school year.",
     "Each principal identifies every student who meets the partner college's placement standard or the state assessment standard and mails written eligibility notices to those students and their parents or guardians by March 1.",
     "The Director of College and Career Readiness designs an early college pathway leading to an associate degree or 60 transferable credits by the end of grade 12 or 13, with a lottery admission process for oversubscription, and presents it for Board approval before the first application window opens.",
     "The Director of College and Career Readiness delivers the first annual report to the Board by November 1 covering participation, courses passed, credits earned and transferred, early college enrollment, and prior-class postsecondary enrollment, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of College and Career Readiness reports to the Board by November 1 each year with the full disaggregated dual-credit, early college, and postsecondary enrollment data.",
     "Principals send written eligibility notices by March 1 each year and the Director audits each school to confirm that no student was charged for tuition, fees, textbooks, or transportation.",
     "The Superintendent reviews the college partnership agreement at least every 3 years and renegotiates course offerings and transferability guarantees as state transfer rules change."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of graduates who earned at least one transferable college credit in high school and share who earned 12 or more, disaggregated by race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, plus dual-credit pass rates, share of credits that transferred, early college enrollment and completion, and postsecondary enrollment of participants versus non-participants from the National Student Clearinghouse.",
    "baseline": "The first November 1 report sets the baseline for each measure and each student group, using the most recent graduating class and the inventory of current student charges and offerings.",
    "target": "Within 1 year every high school offers no-cost dual-credit courses and all eligible students receive written notice by March 1; within 3 years the share of graduates earning at least one transferable credit and the share earning 12 or more rise each year in every student group, gaps for low-income, first-generation, English learner, and disability-status students narrow, and postsecondary enrollment of dual enrollment participants exceeds that of non-participants.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric participation benchmark; the research reference points are the North Carolina early college results of college enrollment at 84 versus 77 percent at year 10 and bachelor's completion at 30 versus 25 percent, and the What Works Clearinghouse positive rating for dual enrollment on degree attainment, credit accumulation, and completing school.",
    "report": "Director of College and Career Readiness to the Board by November 1 each year, posted publicly with the state report card and National Student Clearinghouse data, with the Board reviewing progress against the baseline at that meeting."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "no-cost-dual-enrollment",
     "text": "The policy requires every high school to offer dual enrollment with a public college partner at no cost to students.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "objective-automatic-eligibility",
     "text": "The policy makes students automatically eligible for dual enrollment when they meet an objective threshold.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "transportation-textbooks-provided",
     "text": "The policy provides transportation and textbooks for dual enrollment students.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-outcomes-by-group",
     "text": "The policy requires annual reporting of dual enrollment participation and credit outcomes by student group.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "early-college-pathway",
     "text": "The policy requires districts of sufficient size to operate or partner with an early college pathway.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "early-literacy",
   "domain": "Early literacy instruction and K-3 reading screening",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "graduation"
   ],
   "finding": "Systematic, explicit phonics instruction in K-1 raises word reading, spelling and comprehension by a moderate amount (about 0.4 SD) and is the only reading-disability treatment whose efficacy is confirmed in randomized trials; curriculum-based screening in K-2 predicts later reading well enough to find at-risk readers early. State 'science of reading' laws raise high-stakes elementary reading scores by a small amount so far, mainly where the policy is comprehensive, and the gains on low-stakes NAEP are not yet statistically clear.",
   "effect": "Phonics d = 0.41 overall, 0.55 when begun in K-1; intensive K-3 interventions about 0.3 to 0.4 SD; state literacy laws +0.025 to +0.10 SD on state tests, NAEP effect not significant",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Suggate (2016) found phonics-only gains fade more at follow-up than phonemic awareness and comprehension gains, so phonics is necessary but not sufficient. Bowers (2020) reviewed 12 meta-analyses and argues the advantage of systematic phonics over alternative methods is smaller and less consistent than usually claimed; Torgerson et al. (2018) rate the effect moderate and the evidence base thinner than policy rhetoric implies. Westall and Cummings (2023) find that state early literacy laws move high-stakes scores by only 0.025 to 0.05 SD on average, that effects fade by middle school unless the policy is comprehensive, and that NAEP gains are not statistically significant; Mississippi's rise from 49th to the national average on fourth-grade NAEP reading (2013 to 2019) coincided with a package of screening, LETRS teacher training, coaching and third-grade retention, so no single component can claim the credit. Screening accuracy varies by tool and by how it is administered.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Ehri LC, Nunes SR, Stahl SA, Willows DM (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research 71(3):393-447.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00346543071003393",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071003393",
     "year": 2001,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "66 comparisons from 38 experiments: systematic phonics d = 0.41 overall, 0.55 when begun in K or grade 1, 0.27 after grade 1; benefits decoding, word reading, comprehension and spelling",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Systematic Phonics Instruction Helps Students Learn to Read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s Meta-Analysis",
      "year": 2001,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Ehri",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 938,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00346543071003393.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read. NIH Publication 00-4769.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/smallbook",
     "year": 2000,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "the five-component definition of reading instruction (phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension) that state laws and the model clause reference",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Galuschka K, Ise E, Krick K, Schulte-Korne G (2014). Effectiveness of treatment approaches for children and adolescents with reading disabilities: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS ONE 9(2):e89900.",
     "doi": "10.1371/journal.pone.0089900",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089900",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "22 RCTs, 49 comparisons: phonics instruction is the only treatment approach for reading disability whose efficacy is statistically confirmed; coloured overlays, auditory and motor training are not",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness of Treatment Approaches for Children and Adolescents with Reading Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "PLoS ONE",
      "first_author": "Galuschka",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 426,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1371_journal_pone_0089900.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Suggate SP (2016). A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities 49(1):77-96.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0022219414528540",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414528540",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "71 intervention groups: posttest d = 0.37 falls to 0.22 at follow-up; comprehension and phonemic awareness effects persist, phonics-only and fluency effects tend to fade",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Meta-Analysis of the Long-Term Effects of Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, and Reading Comprehension Interventions",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of Learning Disabilities",
      "first_author": "Suggate",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 371,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0022219414528540.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wanzek J, Stevens EA, Williams KJ, Scammacca N, Vaughn S, Sargent K (2018). Current evidence on the effects of intensive early reading interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities 51(6):612-624.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0022219418775110",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775110",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "25 studies of intensive K-3 reading interventions: weighted mean ES 0.39 (0.28 after publication-bias adjustment), consistent across studies",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Current Evidence on the Effects of Intensive Early Reading Interventions",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Learning Disabilities",
      "first_author": "Wanzek",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 189,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0022219418775110.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "January SA, Klingbeil DA (2020). Universal screening in grades K-2: A systematic review and meta-analysis of early reading curriculum-based measures. Journal of School Psychology 82:103-122.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jsp.2020.08.007",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.08.007",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "48 studies, 47,168 US K-2 students: early reading CBM screeners correlate 0.34 to 0.75 with later reading outcomes, strongest for nonsense-word and oral reading measures",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Universal screening in grades K-2: A systematic review and meta-analysis of early reading curriculum-based measures",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of School Psychology",
      "first_author": "January",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 38,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Westall J, Cummings A (2023). The effects of early literacy policies on student achievement. EdWorkingPaper 23-788, Annenberg Institute at Brown University.",
     "doi": "10.26300/w9tj-dd21",
     "url": "https://edworkingpapers.com/ai23-788",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "event study across 41 states plus DC: early literacy laws raise high-stakes elementary reading by 0.025 to 0.05 SD, up to 0.10 SD under comprehensive policies, with little significant change on low-stakes NAEP",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Early Literacy Policies on Student Achievement",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "edworkingpapers.com",
      "first_author": "Westall, John",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 0,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Novicoff S, Dee TS (2025). The achievement effects of scaling early literacy reforms. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 48(2):589-612.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737251349178",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737251349178",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "California's Early Literacy Support Block Grant (science-of-reading PD, aligned assessments and interventions, about $1,000 per student) raised ELA by 0.14 SD in the lowest-performing schools, with smaller math gains",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Achievement Effects of Scaling Early Literacy Reforms",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Novicoff",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737251349178.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Torgerson C, Brooks G, Gascoine L, Higgins S (2018). Phonics: reading policy and the evidence of effectiveness from a systematic 'tertiary' review. Research Papers in Education 34(2):208-238.",
     "doi": "10.1080/02671522.2017.1420816",
     "year": 2018,
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2017.1420816",
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "tertiary review of all systematic reviews: systematic phonics has a moderate positive effect, but the evidence base is smaller and more uncertain than policy claims suggest and the definitive comparative trial was never run",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Phonics: reading policy and the evidence of effectiveness from a systematic ‘tertiary’ review",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Research Papers in Education",
      "first_author": "Torgerson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 86,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_02671522_2017_1420816.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bowers JS (2020). Reconsidering the evidence that systematic phonics is more effective than alternative methods of reading instruction. Educational Psychology Review 32(3):681-705.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10648-019-09515-y",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09515-y",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: a review of 12 meta-analyses and England's national phonics rollout since 2007 argues the superiority of systematic phonics over alternatives is not established",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reconsidering the Evidence That Systematic Phonics Is More Effective Than Alternative Methods of Reading Instruction",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Educational Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Bowers",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 108,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1007_s10648_019_09515_y.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of K-3 students screened within the first 30 school days of each year and share flagged at risk (district screener data, e.g. DIBELS 8 or Acadience); share of flagged students receiving a documented intervention within 15 school days; third-grade state ELA proficiency rate and the subgroup gaps; percent of K-3 teachers with completed structured-literacy training.",
   "standard": "The policy shall require that core K-3 reading instruction be explicit and systematic in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension, shall prohibit three-cueing as the primary word-reading strategy, and shall require a valid universal screener three times a year in K-3 with intervention for every student flagged at risk.",
   "model_clause": "Core reading instruction in kindergarten through grade 3 shall be explicit and systematic in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. Instructional materials that direct students to identify words primarily from pictures, context or syntax (three-cueing) shall not be adopted as core or intervention materials. The Superintendent shall administer a universal reading screener with published classification accuracy to every student in kindergarten through grade 3 within the first 30 school days of the year and again in the winter and spring windows. Any student identified as at risk shall begin a documented, evidence-based intervention within 15 school days of the screening, and the student's parent or guardian shall be notified in writing within the same period. All K-3 teachers of reading and all elementary principals shall complete a Board-approved structured-literacy training within two years of hire. The Director of Curriculum shall report to the Board each November and each June the screening participation rate, the share of students at risk by school and subgroup, the share of at-risk students receiving intervention within 15 days, and third-grade state ELA results.",
   "red_flags": [
    "balanced literacy or guided reading named as the core K-3 program",
    "three-cueing, MSV, or 'use the picture' strategies in the reading policy or adopted materials",
    "screening only for students referred by a teacher rather than universal",
    "no timeline between screening and the start of intervention",
    "parent notification of reading risk only at report card time",
    "phonics limited to kindergarten or treated as an intervention rather than core instruction"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "reading instruction",
     "phonics",
     "science of reading",
     "literacy",
     "dyslexia screening",
     "universal screener",
     "structured literacy",
     "third grade reading",
     "DIBELS"
    ],
    "regex": "phonic|science of reading|structured literacy|dyslexia|reading screen|universal screen|literacy (plan|instruction|program)|three[- ]cueing|DIBELS|Acadience"
   },
   "law_notes": "By 2021, 41 states and DC had early literacy laws (Westall and Cummings). Mississippi's Literacy-Based Promotion Act (2013) requires K-3 screening, intervention, LETRS-trained teachers and third-grade retention. Ohio HB 33 (2023) requires science-of-reading core curricula and bans three-cueing. Texas HB 3 (2019) requires K-3 teachers to complete reading academies. Most states now mandate K-3 dyslexia or reading-risk screening; check the state's screener approval list before scoring a district's choice of tool.",
   "stakes": 5,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Curriculum, under the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Curriculum inventories every K-3 core and intervention reading program against the state's approved list and flags any material that teaches three-cueing as the primary word-reading strategy.",
     "The Superintendent selects a universal screener with published classification accuracy from the state's approved screener list and adopts a 30-school-day fall screening window for every K-3 student.",
     "The Director of Curriculum builds a tracking sheet that records, for each flagged student, the screening date, the intervention start date, and the date of the written parent notice, so the 15-school-day deadlines can be checked.",
     "Each elementary principal counts the K-3 reading teachers and principals who have not completed a structured-literacy training and reports the number to the Director of Curriculum.",
     "The Superintendent sets the two-year training deadline for each K-3 reading teacher and principal from their hire date and informs them in writing."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Curriculum completes the first fall, winter and spring screening windows for every K-3 student and delivers the November and June reports to the Board with participation, at-risk share by school and subgroup, and 15-day intervention rate.",
     "The Superintendent replaces any core or intervention material that relies on three-cueing with explicit, systematic materials covering phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension, and brings the adoption to the Board.",
     "Each elementary principal enrolls every untrained K-3 reading teacher in the Board-approved structured-literacy training and confirms that interventions for flagged students are documented and evidence-based.",
     "The Director of Curriculum reviews the first year's screening and intervention data with each principal and corrects any school where flagged students waited more than 15 school days."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Curriculum reports to the Board each November and June the screening participation rate, the at-risk share by school and subgroup, the 15-day intervention rate, the training completion percentage, and third-grade state ELA results.",
     "The Superintendent confirms each year that the screener remains on the state's approved list and that no newly adopted material uses three-cueing.",
     "Each elementary principal audits a sample of intervention records each semester for documentation and timely parent notice."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of K-3 students screened within the first 30 school days; share of flagged students beginning a documented intervention within 15 school days; percent of K-3 reading teachers and principals with completed structured-literacy training; third-grade state ELA proficiency rate and subgroup gaps.",
    "baseline": "First fall screening window after adoption: participation rate, at-risk share by school and subgroup, and 15-day intervention rate as reported to the Board in November of year one; prior-year third-grade state ELA proficiency and subgroup gaps.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, every K-3 student is screened within the first 30 school days and every flagged student begins a documented intervention with written parent notice within 15 school days; within 2 years of hire, every K-3 reading teacher and elementary principal completes the structured-literacy training; third-grade state ELA proficiency rises and subgroup gaps narrow over 1 to 3 years.",
    "benchmark": "Explicit systematic phonics shows d = 0.41 overall and 0.55 when begun in K-1; intensive K-3 interventions show about 0.3 to 0.4 SD; state literacy laws show +0.025 to +0.10 SD on state tests with no significant NAEP effect yet, so a district should expect small gains on state ELA scores in the first years rather than a step change. The entry gives no numeric proficiency or gap target.",
    "report": "Director of Curriculum reports to the Board each November and each June, by school and subgroup, with the third-grade state ELA results included in the June report."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "explicit-systematic-core",
     "text": "The policy requires core K-3 reading instruction to be explicit and systematic in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "no-three-cueing",
     "text": "The policy prohibits three-cueing as the primary word-reading strategy.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "universal-screener-three-times",
     "text": "The policy requires a valid universal screener administered three times a year in grades K-3.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "intervention-for-flagged",
     "text": "The policy requires intervention for every student the screener flags as at risk.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "english-learner-programs",
   "domain": "English learner programs and reclassification",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "equity-gaps",
    "postsecondary"
   ],
   "finding": "Lottery studies show dual-language immersion raises English reading achievement (Portland: +13 percentile points by grade 5 and +22 by grade 8, with no loss in math or science; Charlotte: +0.04 to 0.05 SD per year in math and reading for English learners and non-learners alike) and raises the share of English learners reclassified by grade 6. Regression-discontinuity studies of reclassification show that the rule matters more than the label: reclassifying students on a single lenient test score harmed later outcomes, while multi-measure criteria that keep supports in place removed the harm, and timely reclassification before the grade 5 and grade 8 transitions improved on-time graduation.",
   "effect": "Dual-language immersion: English reading +13 to +22 percentile points by grade 5 to 8 (Portland lottery); +0.04 to 0.05 SD per year (Charlotte lottery). Reclassification effects: +0.25 SD English test scores for marginal grade 2 to 4 reclassifiers in Los Angeles; harmful under single-test lenient criteria, null under multi-measure criteria.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Dual-language immersion effects are concentrated in English reading; the Portland lottery found no effect on math or science and the Charlotte study found no effect on EL status. Reclassification effects vary by district: Cimpian, Thompson and Makowski (2017) found that where reclassification cuts off services abruptly, marginal reclassified students lost ground, and Pope (2016) found no benefit for students reclassified in later grades. Johnson (2019) found no effect of initial EL classification on graduation or college entry, so the classification itself is not the lever; program quality and exit rules are. Dual immersion students in San Francisco scored lower in English language arts in early grades before catching up and passing peers by middle school (Valentino and Reardon 2015), which can look like failure on short-horizon accountability measures. Program seats are limited by the supply of bilingual teachers.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Steele, J. L., Slater, R. O., Zamarro, G., Miller, T., Li, J., Burkhauser, S., & Bacon, M. (2017). Effects of Dual-Language Immersion Programs on Student Achievement: Evidence From Lottery Data. American Educational Research Journal 54(1_suppl):282S-306S.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831216634463",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216634463",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Lottery-assigned dual-language immersion in Portland raised English reading by 13 percentile points in grade 5 and 22 in grade 8, no loss in math or science, higher EL reclassification by grade 6",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of Dual-Language Immersion Programs on Student Achievement",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Steele",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 241,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831216634463.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bibler, A. (2021). Dual Language Education and Student Achievement. Education Finance and Policy 16(4):634-658.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00320",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp_a_00320",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Charlotte-Mecklenburg school choice lotteries: attending a two-way dual language school raised math by 0.04 SD and reading by 0.05 SD per year, similar for ELs and non-ELs",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Dual Language Education and Student Achievement",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Bibler",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 13,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00320.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Umansky, I. M., & Reardon, S. F. (2014). Reclassification Patterns Among Latino English Learner Students in Bilingual, Dual Immersion, and English Immersion Classrooms. American Educational Research Journal 51(5):879-912.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831214545110",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214545110",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "In San Francisco, students in bilingual and dual immersion programs reclassified more slowly in elementary grades but reached higher cumulative reclassification and English proficiency by the end of high school than English immersion students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reclassification Patterns Among Latino English Learner Students in Bilingual, Dual Immersion, and English Immersion Classrooms",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Umansky",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 292,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831214545110.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Valentino, R. A., & Reardon, S. F. (2015). Effectiveness of Four Instructional Programs Designed to Serve English Learners: Variation by Ethnicity and Initial English Proficiency. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 37(4):612-637.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373715573310",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373715573310",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Dual immersion students started lower in English language arts but grew faster and surpassed English immersion peers by middle school; short-horizon measures understate program effects",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness of Four Instructional Programs Designed to Serve English Learners",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Valentino",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 159,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373715573310.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., & Thompson, K. D. (2016). The Effects of Changing Test-Based Policies for Reclassifying English Learners. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 35(2):279-305.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.21882",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21882",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Reclassifying students who barely met a lenient single-test criterion harmed their later achievement; after the district raised the criteria and required multiple measures, reclassification at the cutoff no longer caused harm",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Changing Test‐Based Policies for Reclassifying English Learners",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Robinson‐Cimpian",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 49,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_21882.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cimpian, J. R., Thompson, K. D., & Makowski, M. B. (2017). Evaluating English Learner Reclassification Policy Effects Across Districts. American Educational Research Journal 54(1_suppl):255S-278S.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831216635796",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216635796",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Effects of reclassification at the cutoff differ across districts depending on local thresholds and whether supports continue after exit; abrupt service loss produces negative effects",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Evaluating English Learner Reclassification Policy Effects Across Districts",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Cimpian",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 51,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831216635796.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Pope, N. G. (2016). The marginal effect of K-12 English language development programs: Evidence from Los Angeles schools. Economics of Education Review 53:311-328.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.04.009",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.04.009",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Marginal grade 2 to 4 students reclassified from ELD to mainstream English gained 0.25 SD on English tests and higher GPA persisting seven years; no benefit for students reclassified in later grades",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Marginal effect of K-12 English language development programs: Evidence from Los Angeles Schools",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Pope",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 22,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Johnson, A. (2019). The Effects of English Learner Classification on High School Graduation and College Attendance. AERA Open 5(2).",
     "doi": "10.1177/2332858419850801",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419850801",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Initial EL classification had no significant effect on graduation or college enrollment; reclassification just before the grade 5 and grade 8 transitions affected on-time graduation and four-year college entry",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of English Learner Classification on High School Graduation and College Attendance",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Johnson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 39,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2332858419850801.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Umansky, I. M. (2016). Leveled and Exclusionary Tracking: English Learners' Access to Academic Content in Middle School. American Educational Research Journal 53(6):1792-1833.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831216675404",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216675404",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "English learners in middle school were placed in lower-level courses and excluded from core academic content, an access gap that policy on course placement can close",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Leveled and Exclusionary Tracking",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Umansky",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 148,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831216675404.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Umansky, I. M., & Dumont, H. (2021). English Learner Labeling: How English Learner Classification in Kindergarten Shapes Teacher Perceptions of Student Skills and the Moderating Role of Bilingual Instructional Settings. American Educational Research Journal 58(5):993-1031.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831221997571",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831221997571",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "EL classification lowered teachers' perceptions of students' academic skills, except in bilingual instructional settings",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "English Learner Labeling: How English Learner Classification in Kindergarten Shapes Teacher Perceptions of Student Skills and the Moderating Role of Bilingual Instructional Settings",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Umansky",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 40,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831221997571.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.",
     "doi": "10.17226/24677",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.17226/24677",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Consensus review: bilingual and dual-language approaches are at least as effective as English-only for English achievement and add a second language; reclassification should use multiple measures and continue monitoring after exit",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 220,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Annual EL reclassification rate by years in program and by program model; share of long-term English learners (6 or more years); state English language proficiency assessment growth; ELA and math achievement of current and former ELs tracked for four years after reclassification; EL enrollment in grade-level core courses and advanced courses (student information system course rosters); dual-language seats offered versus applicants.",
   "standard": "The district shall offer a dual-language or bilingual program where enrollment supports it, use multiple measures (state proficiency test plus academic performance and teacher input) for reclassification, continue academic monitoring and supports for at least four years after exit, and place English learners in grade-level core content with language support rather than in separate lower-track courses.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall ensure that every English learner receives a language instruction program meeting the standards of Castaneda v. Pickard and that English learners are enrolled in grade-level core academic courses with integrated language support; placement in a course below grade level solely on the basis of English learner status is prohibited. Where at least 20 English learners who share a home language are enrolled at a grade level, the Superintendent shall offer a dual-language or bilingual program at that grade level or report to the Board the reason it cannot. Reclassification shall require the state English language proficiency assessment plus at least two additional measures, including classroom academic performance and teacher recommendation, and shall not rest on a single test score. The Director of Multilingual Programs shall monitor every reclassified student for four academic years and shall re-enter supports when a reclassified student falls below grade level. By October 15 of each year the Director of Multilingual Programs shall report to the Board, disaggregated by school, program model, home language and years in program: reclassification rates, the number and share of long-term English learners, achievement and growth of current and former English learners, and English learner enrollment in advanced and core courses. Program models, exit criteria and this report shall be posted on the district website.",
   "red_flags": [
    "reclassification based solely on the state English proficiency test",
    "no monitoring period for reclassified students",
    "English learners scheduled into ELD in place of a core subject",
    "program described only as 'English immersion' with no bilingual option",
    "no named administrator responsible for English learner services",
    "parent waiver required to receive bilingual instruction",
    "no annual report of EL outcomes to the board"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "English learner",
     "English language learner",
     "ELL",
     "EL",
     "limited English proficient",
     "LEP",
     "bilingual",
     "dual language",
     "dual-language immersion",
     "reclassification",
     "redesignation",
     "ESOL",
     "ESL",
     "language instruction educational program",
     "Title III"
    ],
    "regex": "english (language )?learner|limited english|\\bELL?s?\\b|\\bLEP\\b|bilingual|dual[- ]language|reclassif|redesignat|\\bESOL\\b|\\bESL\\b|title iii"
   },
   "law_notes": "Lau v. Nichols (1974) and Castaneda v. Pickard (5th Cir. 1981) require programs based on sound theory, adequately resourced and evaluated; the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 codifies the duty. ESSA Title III requires standardized statewide entrance and exit procedures and four years of monitoring of former ELs for accountability. The 2015 joint Department of Justice and Department of Education Dear Colleague letter sets expectations for identification, program access, reclassification and monitoring. California Proposition 58 (2016) repealed English-only mandates; Arizona Proposition 203 and its four-hour ELD block were loosened by SB 1014 (2019); Texas requires bilingual education where 20 or more ELs share a language at a grade level (Texas Education Code 29.053).",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Multilingual Programs, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Multilingual Programs pulls student information system course rosters within 30 days to identify every English learner placed in a course below grade level and documents whether English learner status was the basis for placement.",
     "The Superintendent directs principals to move any English learner placed below grade level solely on the basis of English learner status into grade-level core courses with integrated language support within 60 days.",
     "The Director of Multilingual Programs produces a count, by school and grade level, of English learners who share a home language and flags every grade level with at least 20 such students for a dual-language or bilingual program decision.",
     "The Director of Multilingual Programs drafts written reclassification criteria that require the state English language proficiency assessment plus at least two additional measures, including classroom academic performance and teacher recommendation, and submits them to the Superintendent within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Multilingual Programs builds a roster of every student reclassified in the past four academic years so that monitoring can begin on the current cohort."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent presents to the Board, for each grade level with at least 20 English learners sharing a home language, either a dual-language or bilingual program plan with a start date or a written reason the program cannot be offered.",
     "The Director of Multilingual Programs runs the first full reclassification cycle under the multi-measure criteria and confirms that no student exits on a single test score.",
     "The Director of Multilingual Programs establishes a quarterly review of every reclassified student's grades and assessment results and re-enters supports for any student who falls below grade level.",
     "By October 15 the Director of Multilingual Programs delivers the first annual report to the Board, disaggregated by school, program model, home language and years in program, and posts program models, exit criteria and the report on the district website."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "Each year by October 15 the Director of Multilingual Programs reports to the Board on reclassification rates, long-term English learners, achievement and growth of current and former English learners, and English learner enrollment in advanced and core courses.",
     "The Director of Multilingual Programs monitors every reclassified student for four academic years and documents each re-entry of supports.",
     "The Superintendent reviews dual-language seats offered versus applicants each spring and repeats the 20-student threshold check for every grade level."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Annual reclassification rate by years in program and program model; number and share of long-term English learners (6 or more years); ELA and math achievement of former English learners tracked for four years after reclassification; share of English learners enrolled in grade-level core courses and advanced courses; dual-language seats offered versus applicants.",
    "baseline": "The first October 15 report establishes the baseline for each measure using the prior school year's data, including the current count of English learners placed below grade level and the current number of grade levels where 20 or more English learners share a home language but no dual-language or bilingual program exists.",
    "target": "Within 180 days, zero English learners placed in a course below grade level solely on the basis of English learner status and zero reclassifications resting on a single test score; within 1 to 3 years, the share of long-term English learners (6 or more years) declines each year from baseline, the reclassification rate rises from baseline, former English learners show no decline in ELA and math achievement across the four monitored years, and every grade level with 20 or more English learners sharing a home language has a dual-language or bilingual program or a Board-reviewed reason it does not.",
    "benchmark": "Lottery studies found dual-language immersion raised English reading by 13 percentile points by grade 5 and 22 by grade 8 in Portland and by 0.04 to 0.05 SD per year in Charlotte, and raised the share of English learners reclassified by grade 6; multi-measure reclassification with continued supports produced null rather than harmful effects. These are research effects, not district targets, so the district target is directional. ESSA Title III sets the four-year monitoring period and Texas Education Code 29.053 sets the 20-student threshold.",
    "report": "The Director of Multilingual Programs reports to the Board by October 15 each year, disaggregated by school, program model, home language and years in program, and posts the report with program models and exit criteria on the district website; the Board compares each measure against the baseline year and the prior year."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "multi-measure-reclassification",
     "text": "The policy requires reclassification to use multiple measures: the state proficiency test plus academic performance and teacher input.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "dual-language-program",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to offer a dual-language or bilingual program where enrollment supports it.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "four-year-monitoring",
     "text": "The policy requires academic monitoring and supports to continue for at least four years after a student exits English learner status.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "grade-level-core-placement",
     "text": "The policy requires English learners to be placed in grade-level core content with language support rather than separate lower-track courses.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "full-day-kindergarten",
   "domain": "Full-day kindergarten",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "attendance"
   ],
   "finding": "Full-day kindergarten raises achievement at the end of the kindergarten year by about 0.25 to 0.35 SD compared with half-day programs (meta-analysis of 40 studies; Community Guide systematic review; an Indiana lottery experiment found 0.31 SD in literacy, larger for Hispanic children and low-entering-skill children), but in most US studies the test-score advantage fades by third grade.",
   "effect": "End of kindergarten: +0.25 SD (meta-analysis) to +0.35 SD (Community Guide; verbal +0.46, math +0.24); lottery experiment: literacy +0.31 SD, Hispanic children +0.70 SD; advantage largely gone by grade 3 in ECLS-K studies",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Fadeout is the consistent finding: Cannon, Jacknowitz and Painter (2006) and Cooper et al. (2010) both find the achievement difference disappears by third grade, and the 2006 study found no extra benefit for children below the poverty line. Cooper's meta-analysis also found suggestive evidence of less positive attitudes toward school and more behavior problems in full-day programs. Ontario's play-based full-day program showed lasting gains through grade 2 and grade 3 reading, so persistence may depend on program design and the quality of the grades that follow. Full-day kindergarten roughly doubles the staffing and space cost of the grade.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Cooper H, Allen AB, Patall EA, Dent AL (2010). Effects of full-day kindergarten on academic achievement and social development. Review of Educational Research 80(1):34-70.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654309359185",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "40 studies: full-day kindergarten associated with about 0.25 SD higher achievement at end of kindergarten; association gone by third grade; social results mixed",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of Full-Day Kindergarten on Academic Achievement and Social Development",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Cooper",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 134,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654309359185.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hahn RA, Rammohan V, Truman BI, et al., Community Preventive Services Task Force (2014). Effects of full-day kindergarten on the long-term health prospects of children in low-income and racial/ethnic-minority populations: A Community Guide systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 46(3):312-323.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.amepre.2013.12.003",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "CDC Community Guide: full-day kindergarten improved achievement by 0.35 SD (verbal 0.46, math 0.24); Task Force recommends it on the strength of this evidence",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of Full-Day Kindergarten on the Long-Term Health Prospects of Children in Low-Income and Racial/Ethnic-Minority Populations",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "American Journal of Preventive Medicine",
      "first_author": "Hahn",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 21,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gibbs CR (2014). Experimental evidence on early intervention: The impact of full-day kindergarten. University of Virginia Batten School working paper (ERIC ED564096).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED564096.pdf",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Indiana districts allocating full-day seats by lottery: lottery winners scored 0.31 SD higher in end-of-year literacy; effects 0.70 SD for Hispanic children",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cannon JS, Jacknowitz A, Painter G (2006). Is full better than half? Examining the longitudinal effects of full-day kindergarten attendance. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 25(2):299-321.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.20174",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2006,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "ECLS-K with instrumental variables and county fixed effects: initial benefits for children and mothers largely evaporate by third grade; no extra benefit below the poverty line",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Is full better than half? Examining the longitudinal effects of full‐day kindergarten attendance",
      "year": 2006,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Cannon",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 85,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_20174.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "DeCicca P (2007). Does full-day kindergarten matter? Evidence from the first two years of schooling. Economics of Education Review 26(1):67-82.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.04.003",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2007,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "ECLS-K: full-day kindergarten raised math and reading at the end of kindergarten, with gains fading substantially by the end of first grade",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does full-day kindergarten matter? Evidence from the first two years of schooling",
      "year": 2007,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "DeCicca",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 83,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Pelletier JP, Corter JE (2019). A longitudinal comparison of learning outcomes in full-day and half-day kindergarten. Journal of Educational Research 112(2):192-210.",
     "doi": "10.1080/00220671.2018.1486280",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Ontario phase-in of play-based full-day kindergarten: lasting benefits in self-regulation, reading, writing and number knowledge to end of grade 2 and higher grade 3 reading proficiency",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A longitudinal comparison of learning outcomes in full-day and half-day kindergarten",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "The Journal of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Patricia Pelletier",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 19,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_00220671_2018_1486280.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Atteberry A, Bassok D, Wong VC (2019). The effects of full-day prekindergarten: Experimental evidence of impacts on children's school readiness. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 41(4):537-562.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373719872197",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Adjacent evidence: randomized full- versus half-day pre-K near Denver raised receptive vocabulary 0.275 SD and persisted on basic literacy at kindergarten entry",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Full-Day Prekindergarten: Experimental Evidence of Impacts on Children’s School Readiness",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Atteberry",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 40,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373719872197.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of kindergarten students enrolled in a free full-day program (enrollment file); daily kindergarten instructional minutes compared with grade 1; kindergarten entry assessment and end-of-year literacy and numeracy screening results by subgroup; kindergarten attendance and chronic absence rate.",
   "standard": "The district offers tuition-free full-day kindergarten, with the same daily instructional minutes as grade 1, to every eligible child in every attendance area, and reports enrollment and end-of-year readiness results by subgroup.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall offer a tuition-free full-day kindergarten program in every elementary attendance area, with daily instructional minutes equal to those of grade 1, and shall enroll every age-eligible child whose family requests it. Half-day enrollment shall be available only at a family's written request. The kindergarten program shall include daily recess and a play-based component, and shall not reduce time for physical education, art or music below the grade 1 allocation. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 15 of each year the number and percentage of kindergarten students enrolled full-day by building and subgroup, any waiting list, and the results of the fall kindergarten entry assessment, and by July 15 of each year the end-of-year literacy and numeracy screening results by subgroup and the kindergarten chronic absence rate.",
   "red_flags": [
    "full-day kindergarten offered only as a tuition or fee program",
    "full-day seats limited to certain buildings or by lottery with no plan to expand",
    "kindergarten day shorter than grade 1 by more than 30 minutes",
    "no kindergarten readiness or end-of-year reporting",
    "kindergarten listed as optional with no full-day provision"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "kindergarten",
     "full-day",
     "half-day",
     "all-day kindergarten",
     "kindergarten entry"
    ],
    "regex": "kindergarten|full[- ]day K\\b|half[- ]day K\\b|all[- ]day K\\b"
   },
   "law_notes": "State law sets whether districts must offer kindergarten and whether full-day is funded. Education Commission of the States counted 15 states plus the District of Columbia requiring districts to offer full-day kindergarten as of 2018; Washington and Rhode Island have since added requirements. Most states fund full-day kindergarten at the full per-pupil rate but do not require it, and six states do not require districts to offer any kindergarten. Check the state code for the required daily minutes and attendance age.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Assistant Superintendent for Elementary Education as day-to-day lead",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent checks the state code for required kindergarten daily minutes, attendance age, and full-day funding, and reports the findings to the Board within 30 days.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Elementary Education inventories every elementary attendance area for current kindergarten format, daily instructional minutes compared with grade 1, tuition charged, classroom space, and staffing.",
     "The Chief Financial Officer prepares a cost model for tuition-free full-day kindergarten in every attendance area, showing state per-pupil funding, added staff, and any space needs, for Board review within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Curriculum drafts a kindergarten daily schedule that matches grade 1 instructional minutes and includes daily recess, a play-based component, and physical education, art and music at no less than the grade 1 allocation.",
     "The Superintendent designates the fall kindergarten entry assessment and the end-of-year literacy and numeracy screeners that will be reported by subgroup."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Board adopts the budget and staffing plan so that every attendance area offers tuition-free full-day kindergarten at the start of the next school year, with half-day only on a family's written request.",
     "The Director of Student Services builds the registration form and the enrollment file fields that record full-day or half-day status by building and subgroup and any waiting list.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the October 15 report on full-day enrollment by building and subgroup, any waiting list, and fall entry assessment results, and the July 15 report on end-of-year literacy and numeracy screening by subgroup and the kindergarten chronic absence rate.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Elementary Education audits each building's kindergarten schedule once during the year to confirm minutes, recess, play-based time, and specials match the adopted schedule."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent presents the October 15 and July 15 reports every year and flags any building where full-day enrollment, a waiting list, or subgroup screening results have moved in the wrong direction.",
     "The Chief Financial Officer confirms each spring that the next year's budget keeps full-day kindergarten tuition-free in every attendance area.",
     "The Director of Curriculum reviews grade 3 reading results for recent kindergarten cohorts each year, since the entry gives notice that the early advantage can fade by grade 3 without follow-through."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of kindergarten students enrolled in a tuition-free full-day program, by building and subgroup, from the enrollment file; kindergarten daily instructional minutes compared with grade 1; end-of-year literacy and numeracy screening results by subgroup; kindergarten chronic absence rate.",
    "baseline": "The current year's enrollment file: percentage of kindergarten students in full-day, tuition-free seats by building and subgroup, any tuition charged, daily kindergarten minutes relative to grade 1, and the most recent end-of-year screening results by subgroup and chronic absence rate.",
    "target": "Within 1 year of adoption, every elementary attendance area offers tuition-free full-day kindergarten with daily instructional minutes equal to grade 1, every age-eligible child whose family requests it is enrolled with no waiting list, and the only half-day enrollments are those with a written family request; within 1 to 3 years, end-of-year literacy and numeracy screening results rise for every reported subgroup, with the largest gains expected among Hispanic children and children with low entering skills, and kindergarten chronic absence does not rise.",
    "benchmark": "The research gives an effect size, not an enrollment or screening threshold: full-day kindergarten raised end-of-kindergarten achievement by about 0.25 SD (meta-analysis of 40 studies) to 0.35 SD (Community Guide review; verbal +0.46, math +0.24), and an Indiana lottery experiment found +0.31 SD in literacy, with +0.70 SD for Hispanic children. The entry gives no numeric benchmark for enrollment share or screener pass rates, so the enrollment target is universal access and the achievement target is directional. The entry also notes the advantage largely fades by grade 3 in ECLS-K studies, so the Board should treat end-of-kindergarten gains as the primary check and grade 3 results as a watch item.",
    "report": "Superintendent to the Board by October 15 each year (full-day enrollment by building and subgroup, waiting list, fall entry assessment) and by July 15 each year (end-of-year literacy and numeracy screening by subgroup, kindergarten chronic absence rate), each with the prior year's figures alongside for comparison."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "tuition-free-full-day",
     "text": "The policy provides tuition-free full-day kindergarten to every eligible child in every attendance area.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "instructional-minutes-match-grade-1",
     "text": "The policy gives kindergarten the same daily instructional minutes as grade 1.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-tuition-or-fee-program",
     "text": "The policy does not offer full-day kindergarten only as a tuition or fee program.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-limited-seats-without-expansion-plan",
     "text": "The policy does not limit full-day seats to certain buildings or a lottery without a plan to expand.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "reports-enrollment-and-readiness-by-subg",
     "text": "The policy requires reporting of kindergarten enrollment and end-of-year readiness results by subgroup.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "gifted-identification",
   "domain": "Gifted and advanced learner identification",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "equity-gaps",
    "achievement"
   ],
   "finding": "Replacing teacher or parent referral with universal screening of every student, with no change in the eligibility cutoff, raised gifted identification in Broward County from 3.3 to 5.5 percent of second graders, with the largest gains for low-income, Black, Hispanic and English learner students who had been systematically under-referred. Black students with the same test scores are referred less often than White students, especially by non-Black teachers, which is why referral-based systems miss them.",
   "effect": "Broward universal screening: identification rate +67 percent overall; Hispanic identification roughly +130 percent, Black +80 percent, with eligibility cutoffs unchanged. Local (school) norms would further raise Black and Latinx representation. Gifted services themselves: achievement effects for marginal students near zero in RD studies, though high-achiever classrooms raised Black and Hispanic scores by 0.5 SD in one district.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Universal screening fixes who is found, not what they get: regression-discontinuity and lottery studies find little or no short-run achievement gain for students at the margin of gifted eligibility (Bui, Craig and Imberman 2014), and nationally representative data show Black and low-income students do not see the small gains their peers get from gifted services (Redding and Grissom 2021). Broward suspended universal screening during budget cuts and identification fell back, showing the policy needs a funded test every year. Screening with a single nonverbal test can still under-identify English learners unless local norms or multiple measures are used.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Card D, Giuliano L (2016). Universal screening increases the representation of low-income and minority students in gifted education. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(48):13678-13683.",
     "doi": "10.1073/pnas.1605043113",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Broward County's switch to universal second grade screening raised identification from 3.3 to 5.5 percent with the largest gains for low-income, Black, Hispanic and English learner students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Universal screening increases the representation of low-income and minority students in gifted education",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
      "first_author": "Card",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 303,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1073_pnas_1605043113.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Grissom JA, Redding C (2016). Discretion and Disproportionality: Explaining the Underrepresentation of High-Achieving Students of Color in Gifted Programs. AERA Open 2(1).",
     "doi": "10.1177/2332858415622175",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Black students with the same test scores are less likely to be assigned to gifted services, and less likely still when taught by non-Black teachers: the referral stage is where under-identification happens",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Discretion and Disproportionality",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Grissom",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 400,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2332858415622175.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "McBee MT, Peters SJ, Miller EM (2016). The Impact of the Nomination Stage on Gifted Program Identification: A Comprehensive Psychometric Analysis. Gifted Child Quarterly 60(4):258-278.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0016986216656256",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Psychometric analysis showing that a nomination gate before testing misses a large share of students who would qualify",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of the Nomination Stage on Gifted Program Identification",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Gifted Child Quarterly",
      "first_author": "McBee",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 181,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0016986216656256.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Peters SJ, Rambo-Hernandez K, Makel MC, Matthews MS, Plucker JA (2019). Effect of Local Norms on Racial and Ethnic Representation in Gifted Education. AERA Open 5(2).",
     "doi": "10.1177/2332858419848446",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Preregistered analysis of a large dataset: school-level norms, or national plus school norms, would raise African American and Latinx representation in gifted programs",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effect of Local Norms on Racial and Ethnic Representation in Gifted Education",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Peters",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 97,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2332858419848446.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Card D, Giuliano L (2016). Can Tracking Raise the Test Scores of High-Ability Minority Students? American Economic Review 106(10):2783-2816.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aer.20150484",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Separate gifted/high-achiever classrooms raised Black and Hispanic participants' reading and math scores by 0.5 SD with no spillover harm; what identified students receive matters",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Can Tracking Raise the Test Scores of High-Ability Minority Students?",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "American Economic Review",
      "first_author": "Card",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 111,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aer_20150484.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bui SA, Craig SG, Imberman SA (2014). Is Gifted Education a Bright Idea? Assessing the Impact of Gifted and Talented Programs on Students. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 6(3):30-62.",
     "doi": "10.1257/pol.6.3.30",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Marginal students admitted to gifted programs show no short-run achievement gain; lottery winners to GT magnets gain only in science",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Is Gifted Education a Bright Idea? Assessing the Impact of Gifted and Talented Programs on Students",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Bui",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 90,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_pol_6_3_30.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Redding C, Grissom JA (2021). Do Students in Gifted Programs Perform Better? Linking Gifted Program Participation to Achievement and Nonachievement Outcomes. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 43(3):520-544.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737211008919",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Nationally, gifted participation is associated with small achievement gains for the average student but none for Black and low-income students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Do Students in Gifted Programs Perform Better? Linking Gifted Program Participation to Achievement and Nonachievement Outcomes",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Redding",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 39,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737211008919.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of each grade cohort screened (target 100 percent at the screening grade); identification rate by race, ethnicity, income, and English learner status compared with each group's share of enrollment (representation index); share of identified students receiving services; state gifted data collection and the federal Civil Rights Data Collection gifted enrollment counts.",
   "standard": "Every student shall be screened for advanced learning services with a validated instrument at least once in the primary grades and once in middle school, without a prior referral, using multiple measures and local norms, and identification rates by student group shall be published annually.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall administer a validated ability or achievement screener to every student in grade 2 and again in grade 6, and to every student new to the district within one semester of enrollment, at no cost to families and without any requirement of teacher, parent, or self nomination. Eligibility shall be determined from multiple measures and shall use school-level or district-level local norms in addition to national norms, with nonverbal measures and native-language accommodations available for English learners. A student who meets the criteria shall be placed in services within one semester unless a parent or guardian declines in writing. The Director of Advanced Academics shall report to the Board by November 1 each year the percentage of each cohort screened, the number and percentage of students identified and served by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, and the representation index for each group, and the Superintendent shall present a corrective plan for any group whose representation index is below 0.8.",
   "red_flags": [
    "identification requires a teacher or parent referral or nomination",
    "testing only for students recommended by staff",
    "a single national-norm cutoff (for example 130 IQ or 97th percentile) as the only criterion",
    "screening or testing fees charged to families",
    "no reporting of identification by student group",
    "services limited to pull-out enrichment with no advanced curriculum"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "gifted",
     "talented",
     "advanced learner",
     "universal screening",
     "GT",
     "TAG",
     "highly capable",
     "identification"
    ],
    "regex": "gifted|talented|highly capable|advanced learner|universal(ly)? screen|\\bG/?T\\b|\\bTAG\\b|identif(y|ication) (of|for) (gifted|advanced)"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal mandate to identify or serve gifted students; the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act funds research and demonstration only. State mandates vary widely: some states require identification and services and set identification rules (for example Texas Education Code chapter 29 subchapter D and Florida Rule 6A-6.03019 Plan B for underrepresented groups), others require neither. Gifted enrollment by race, sex, disability and English learner status is reported to the federal Civil Rights Data Collection.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Advanced Academics, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Advanced Academics selects a validated ability or achievement screener with nonverbal forms and native-language accommodations and brings the contract to the Board for approval within 60 days.",
     "The Director of Advanced Academics and the Director of Assessment set the screening calendar for every grade 2 and grade 6 student and for students new to the district within one semester of enrollment, and publish it to schools by day 90.",
     "The Superintendent revises the eligibility rules to use multiple measures and school-level or district-level local norms alongside national norms, and removes any teacher, parent, or self nomination requirement from the identification procedure.",
     "The Director of Advanced Academics pulls the current gifted roster by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status and computes the baseline representation index for each group within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Communications sends families a plain-language notice in home languages explaining that every child in the screening grades will be screened at no cost and how a parent or guardian may decline services in writing."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "School principals administer the screener to every grade 2 and grade 6 student during the scheduled window, and the Director of Assessment reconciles rosters so that students absent on screening day are tested within 30 days.",
     "The Director of Advanced Academics convenes eligibility reviews using multiple measures and local norms and places every student who meets the criteria in services within one semester unless a parent or guardian declines in writing.",
     "The Director of Advanced Academics reports to the Board by November 1 the percentage of each cohort screened, the number and percentage of students identified and served by school and student group, and the representation index for each group.",
     "The Superintendent presents a corrective plan to the Board for any group whose representation index is below 0.8, naming the schools and the changes to norms, measures, or accommodations that will be made."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Advanced Academics repeats universal screening every year for grade 2, grade 6, and newly enrolled students and files the November 1 report to the Board.",
     "The Director of Data and Accountability reconciles the district's gifted counts with the state gifted data collection and the federal Civil Rights Data Collection submission each reporting cycle.",
     "The Board reviews the representation index by group at a public meeting each year and renews or revises the corrective plan for any group still below 0.8."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Percentage of each grade 2 and grade 6 cohort screened, and the representation index (share of identified students in a group divided by that group's share of enrollment) for students by race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status",
    "baseline": "Current year's share of the grade 2 and grade 6 cohort screened under the referral-based system, and the current gifted representation index for each student group computed from the district roster in the first 90 days",
    "target": "100 percent of each grade 2 and grade 6 cohort screened in year one, and the representation index for every student group reaches at least 0.8 within 3 years, with the identification rate for low-income, Black, Hispanic, and English learner students rising each year until that threshold is met",
    "benchmark": "Broward County raised overall identification from 3.3 to 5.5 percent of second graders (+67 percent) after universal screening with unchanged cutoffs, with Hispanic identification up roughly 130 percent and Black identification up roughly 80 percent; the clause sets 0.8 as the representation index floor that triggers a corrective plan",
    "report": "Annual report by the Director of Advanced Academics to the Board by November 1, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, with the same counts filed to the state gifted data collection and the federal Civil Rights Data Collection"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "universal-screening-no-referral",
     "text": "The policy requires every student to be screened for advanced learning services without a prior teacher or parent referral.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "validated-instrument",
     "text": "The policy requires the screening to use a validated instrument.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "primary-and-middle-timing",
     "text": "The policy requires screening at least once in the primary grades and once in middle school.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "multiple-measures-local-norms",
     "text": "The policy requires identification to use multiple measures and local norms.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-group-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires identification rates by student group to be published annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "grade-retention",
   "domain": "Grade retention and promotion",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "discipline",
    "postsecondary"
   ],
   "finding": "Regression discontinuity studies of test-based third-grade retention paired with intensive reading intervention (Florida, Indiana, Mississippi) show large short-run reading gains, with Indiana and Mississippi gains persisting into middle school. Long-run evidence is split: Florida retainees reached high school with higher GPAs and less remediation and no graduation penalty, while a 2026 Texas study finds retained third graders were 9 points less likely to graduate and earned 19 percent less at 26, and retention in later grades (Chicago grade 8, Louisiana grade 8) raises dropout and juvenile crime.",
   "effect": "Short-run reading gains of roughly 0.2 to 0.6 SD that fade or persist by state; Texas: graduation -9 pp, earnings at 26 -19%; older grades: dropout up; disciplinary incidents up short-run (Florida)",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Zhong (2026, Texas) is the longest follow-up of a modern test-based policy and finds net harm: higher absenteeism, violent behavior and juvenile crime, lower graduation and earnings despite temporary score gains. Ozek (2015) finds Florida retention raised disciplinary incidents and suspensions in the short run, concentrated among poor and male students. Jacob and Lefgren (2009) find grade 8 retention in Chicago raises dropout. Eren, Depew and Barnes (2017) find grade 8 retention in Louisiana raises juvenile crime. The pre-2000 literature summarized by Jimerson (2001) associated retention with worse achievement and adjustment, though Allen et al. (2009) show the negative estimates shrink toward zero in better-designed studies. The positive results all come from retention bundled with summer reading camps, high-quality teachers and intervention plans; nothing in the evidence supports retention alone. Retention costs taxpayers about one additional year of schooling per retained student, less than previously estimated (Winters 2022) but still substantial.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Schwerdt G, West MR, Winters MA (2017). The effects of test-based retention on student outcomes over time: Regression discontinuity evidence from Florida. Journal of Public Economics 152:154-169.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jpubeco.2017.06.004",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2017.06.004",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Florida third-grade retention: large short-run gains that fade over several years, fewer remedial courses and higher GPA in high school, no detectable effect on graduation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The effects of test-based retention on student outcomes over time: Regression discontinuity evidence from Florida",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Public Economics",
      "first_author": "Schwerdt",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 122,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hwang NY, Koedel C (2023). Helping or hurting: The effects of retention in the third grade on student outcomes. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 47(1):65-88.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737231197639",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737231197639",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Indiana IREAD-3 retention raises ELA and math immediately and substantially, with effects persisting into middle school and no effect on attendance or discipline",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Helping or Hurting: The Effects of Retention in the Third Grade on Student Outcomes",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Hwang",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 9,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737231197639.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Slungaard Mumma K, Winters MA (2023). The Effect of Retention Under Mississippi's Test-Based Promotion Policy. Working paper, Wheelock Educational Policy Center, Boston University.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://wheelockpolicycenter.org/high-quality-education/ms-read-by-grade-three/",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "first Mississippi cohort (grade 3 in 2014-15): retained students scored around the 62nd percentile in grade 6 ELA versus the 20th for barely promoted peers, with no effect on math, attendance or special education identification",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Zhong J (2026). Early grade retention harms adult earnings. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 18(4):276-308.",
     "doi": "10.1257/app.20230121",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20230121",
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: Texas third-grade retention cut earnings at 26 by $3,477 (19 percent), raised absenteeism, violent behavior and juvenile crime, and lowered high school graduation despite temporary test gains",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Early Grade Retention Harms Adult Earnings",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Applied Economics",
      "first_author": "Zhong",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 0,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_app_20230121.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jacob BA, Lefgren L (2009). The effect of grade retention on high school completion. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1(3):33-58.",
     "doi": "10.1257/app.1.3.33",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/app.1.3.33",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Chicago: retention in grade 8 raises the probability of dropping out; retention in grade 6 does not",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Grade Retention on High School Completion",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Applied Economics",
      "first_author": "Jacob",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 214,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_app_1_3_33.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Eren O, Depew B, Barnes S (2017). Test-based promotion policies, dropping out, and juvenile crime. Journal of Public Economics 153:9-31.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jpubeco.2017.07.002",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2017.07.002",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Louisiana: retention in grade 8 raises juvenile crime and dropout; grade 4 retention shows no such harm",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Test-based promotion policies, dropping out, and juvenile crime",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Public Economics",
      "first_author": "Eren",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 64,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ozek U (2015). Hold back to move forward? Early grade retention and student misbehavior. Education Finance and Policy 10(3):350-377.",
     "doi": "10.1162/EDFP_a_00166",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/EDFP_a_00166",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Florida retention raises disciplinary incidents and suspensions in the short run, concentrated among economically disadvantaged and male students, fading over time",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Hold Back To Move Forward? Early Grade Retention And Student Misbehavior",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Özek",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 43,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_EDFP_a_00166.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Figlio D, Ozek U (2020). An extra year to learn English? Early grade retention and the human capital development of English learners. Journal of Public Economics 186:104184.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104184",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104184",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Florida English learners retained in grade 3 gained in test scores, were reclassified as English proficient sooner and took more advanced courses in middle and high school",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "An extra year to learn English? Early grade retention and the human capital development of English learners",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Public Economics",
      "first_author": "Figlio",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 27,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Allen CS, Chen Q, Willson VL, Hughes JN (2009). Quality of research design moderates effects of grade retention on achievement: A meta-analytic, multilevel analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 31(4):480-499.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373709352239",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373709352239",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "207 effect sizes from 22 studies 1990-2007: better-designed studies find less negative effects, challenging the older consensus that retention harms achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Quality of Research Design Moderates Effects of Grade Retention on Achievement: A Meta-Analytic, Multilevel Analysis",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Allen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 257,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373709352239.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jimerson SR (2001). Meta-analysis of grade retention research: Implications for practice in the 21st century. School Psychology Review 30(3):420-437.",
     "doi": "10.1080/02796015.2001.12086124",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2001.12086124",
     "year": 2001,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "older literature: 20 studies from the 1990s associate retention with worse achievement and socioemotional adjustment, consistent with 1970s and 1980s reviews",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Meta-analysis of Grade Retention Research: Implications for Practice in the 21st Century",
      "year": 2001,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Jimerson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 599,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_02796015_2001_12086124.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Winters MA (2022). The cost of retention under a test-based promotion policy for taxpayers and students. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 45(4):688-695.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737221138041",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737221138041",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "cost accounting: Florida retention costs taxpayers about 45 percent less and students about 37 percent less than earlier estimates, but still roughly most of a year of schooling per retained student",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Cost of Retention Under a Test-Based Promotion Policy for Taxpayers and Students",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Winters",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737221138041.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Number and share of students retained by grade, school, race, disability and EL status each year (student information system); share of retained students who had a documented intervention plan before the retention decision; reading proficiency of retained students one and three years later compared with barely promoted peers; attendance and discipline of retained students.",
   "standard": "The policy shall prohibit retention as a stand-alone response, shall require that any retention in grades K-3 be preceded by documented intervention and followed by a written individual reading plan with a different and more intensive program, shall provide good-cause exemptions, and shall prohibit retention in grades 6 through 8 as a consequence of test scores alone.",
   "model_clause": "No student shall be retained in grade solely on the basis of a single test score, and no student shall be retained more than once in grades K-3. Before any student in grades K-3 is retained, the principal shall document that the student received at least one semester of evidence-based intervention beyond core instruction, that the parent or guardian was notified in writing of the risk of retention at least 90 school days before the end of the year, and that a good-cause exemption review was completed for students with disabilities, English learners with fewer than two years of instruction, and students already retained. Every retained student shall receive a written individual reading plan, prepared by the principal and the reading specialist before the first day of the repeated year, that assigns a different core program or a highly rated teacher, at least 90 minutes of daily reading instruction, and progress monitoring every two weeks. Students in grades 6 through 8 shall not be retained on the basis of test scores. The Superintendent shall report to the Board each September the number of students retained in the prior year by grade, school, race, disability and English learner status, the share with a completed intervention record, and the reading proficiency and attendance of students retained two years earlier.",
   "red_flags": [
    "retention at the discretion of the principal or teacher with no documented intervention first",
    "promotion requirements based on a single cut score with no good-cause exemptions",
    "retention permitted in middle school grades as a consequence of test scores or behavior",
    "no individual plan or change of program for the repeated year",
    "parent notification only after the retention decision",
    "no limit on the number of times a student may be retained"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "retention",
     "promotion",
     "retained",
     "held back",
     "social promotion",
     "promotion standards",
     "good cause exemption",
     "third grade reading"
    ],
    "regex": "retention|retain(ed)? (in|at) grade|promotion (standard|requirement|policy)|held back|social promotion|good[- ]cause exemption"
   },
   "law_notes": "Florida (2002), Mississippi (2013), Indiana (2024 SEA 1), Alabama (effective 2023-24), Tennessee (effective 2023) and roughly a dozen other states require or strongly presume third-grade retention for students below a reading cut score, nearly all with good-cause exemptions. Michigan repealed its retention mandate effective 2024 and Ohio made retention optional in 2023 (HB 33). District policy must at least match state exemption and notification rules; where state law is silent, the district standard above governs.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through the Director of Curriculum and Instruction, with the Director of Student Information Systems maintaining the retention data and the Director of Special Education and the EL Coordinator conducting good-cause exemption reviews.",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent directs legal counsel to compare the model clause against the state's retention statute, exemption list and parent notification rules and to report to the Board which of the two is stricter on each point so the district policy at least matches state law.",
     "The Director of Student Information Systems adds fields to the student information system that record, for every retention decision, the grade, the intervention record, the date of written parent notice, the good-cause exemption review and the individual reading plan.",
     "The Director of Curriculum and Instruction writes the template for the written individual reading plan, including the different core program or highly rated teacher assignment, the 90 minutes of daily reading instruction and the two-week progress monitoring schedule.",
     "Each principal, with the reading specialist, lists every current K-3 student at risk of retention and confirms that each has at least one semester of documented evidence-based intervention beyond core instruction under way.",
     "The Superintendent sends every principal and middle school counselor written notice that students in grades 6 through 8 may not be retained on the basis of test scores."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each K-3 principal sends written notice of retention risk to parents or guardians at least 90 school days before the end of the year and logs the date in the student information system.",
     "The Director of Special Education and the EL Coordinator complete and sign a good-cause exemption review for every student with a disability, every English learner with fewer than two years of instruction and every student already retained before any retention decision is final.",
     "The principal and reading specialist complete a written individual reading plan for every retained student before the first day of the repeated year, and the Director of Curriculum and Instruction audits a sample of plans for the required program change, minutes and monitoring schedule.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first September report to the Board with retentions by grade, school, race, disability and English learner status and the share with a completed intervention record."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board each September on prior-year retentions and on the reading proficiency and attendance of students retained two years earlier, compared with barely promoted peers.",
     "The Director of Curriculum and Instruction reviews the two-week progress monitoring data for all retained students each quarter and reassigns program or teacher where a student is not gaining.",
     "The Director of Student Information Systems reviews retention counts by race, disability and EL status each spring and flags any school whose retention share for a subgroup exceeds its share of enrollment for Board review."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of retained K-3 students whose retention record shows a completed intervention plan, written parent notice at least 90 school days before year end, a good-cause exemption review where required and an individual reading plan dated before the first day of the repeated year; number of students retained in grades 6 through 8 on the basis of test scores; reading proficiency and attendance of retained students one and three years after retention compared with barely promoted peers; discipline incidents of retained students.",
    "baseline": "The Superintendent establishes the baseline from the first September report: the number and share of students retained in the prior year by grade, school, race, disability and EL status, the share with a documented intervention plan before the decision, and the current reading proficiency and attendance of students retained two years earlier.",
    "target": "By the end of year one, every retained K-3 student has a complete intervention record, parent notice, exemption review and individual reading plan, zero students in grades 6 through 8 are retained on test scores alone, and no student is retained more than once in K-3; within 1 to 3 years, retained students' reading proficiency rises relative to barely promoted peers and their attendance and discipline do not worsen relative to those peers.",
    "benchmark": "The research gives no district-level numeric benchmark for compliance or outcomes. Regression discontinuity studies of test-based third-grade retention with intensive reading intervention report short-run reading gains of roughly 0.2 to 0.6 SD, persisting into middle school in Indiana and Mississippi but fading elsewhere; a 2026 Texas study finds retained third graders 9 points less likely to graduate and earning 19 percent less at 26, and Florida reports higher short-run disciplinary incidents, so the Board should expect reading gains only when the intervention is real and should watch attendance and discipline as warning signs.",
    "report": "The Superintendent presents the retention report to the Board each September, with the compliance measures for the prior year's retentions and the reading proficiency and attendance of students retained two years earlier, disaggregated by grade, school, race, disability and EL status, and the Board reviews any school with incomplete records or a subgroup retention share above its enrollment share at that meeting."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "no-standalone-retention",
     "text": "The policy prohibits retention as a stand-alone response to a student's academic performance.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "k3-documented-intervention-first",
     "text": "The policy requires that any retention in grades K-3 be preceded by documented intervention.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "k3-individual-reading-plan",
     "text": "The policy requires that any retention in grades K-3 be followed by a written individual reading plan.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "k3-different-intensive-program",
     "text": "The policy requires that the individual reading plan for a retained K-3 student use a different and more intensive program.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "good-cause-exemptions",
     "text": "The policy provides good-cause exemptions from retention.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-middle-grades-test-retention",
     "text": "The policy prohibits retention in grades 6 through 8 as a consequence of test scores alone.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "grading-practices",
   "domain": "Grading practices (zeros, late work, minimum grades, standards-based grading)",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Grades measure a mix of academic mastery and behavior and vary widely from teacher to teacher. The causal evidence favors two things: higher grading standards raise learning (Algebra I students of tougher graders learn more and keep the gain in later courses), and a standards-based system with formative feedback and reassessment for full credit raised ninth-grade math test scores by 0.33 SD in a cluster RCT. The specific rules districts fight over, no zeros, 50-percent floors and late-work penalties, have almost no outcome research; the one study of a minimum-grade policy is from a single school.",
   "effect": "Higher teacher grading standards: positive effect on test scores and later math courses; PARLO standards-based grading RCT: +0.33 SD; minimum-grade and no-zero policies: no causal outcome evidence",
   "evidence_tier": "C",
   "counter_evidence": "Carey and Carifio (2012) found no grade inflation or social promotion under a 50-point floor at one urban high school over seven years, but it is a single site with no comparison group. Reeves (2004) argues against zeros on arithmetic grounds (a zero on a 100-point scale is a six-point penalty on a 4-point scale), which is a measurement argument, not outcome evidence. Welsh, D'Agostino and Kaniskan (2013) find standards-based report-card grades only moderately converge with state test scores and vary more within schools than between them. Hjorth-Trolle, Rosenqvist and Hed (2021) show that changing grading practice (Sweden's move from relative to absolute grades) widened the gap between students of low- and high-educated parents, so grading reforms can move equity in either direction. Gershenson, Holt and Tyner (2024), Betts and Grogger (2003) and Figlio and Lucas (2004) all point the other way from lenient grading: students learn more under higher standards. Equity-grading programs such as Feldman's have practitioner and pilot data but no peer-reviewed causal evaluation.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Brookhart SM, Guskey TR, Bowers AJ, McMillan JH, Smith JK, Smith LF, Stevens MT, Welsh ME (2016). A century of grading research: Meaning and value in the most common educational measure. Review of Educational Research 86(4):803-848.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654316672069",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316672069",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "100 years of studies: teacher grades are a multidimensional mix of cognitive and noncognitive factors, historically unreliable, and consistency improves when grading criteria are explicit",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Century of Grading Research",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Brookhart",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 392,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654316672069.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kramer SL, Posner B, Browman A, Lawrence N, Cardichon J (2024). The impacts of a standards-based grading system emphasizing formative assessment, feedback, and re-assessment: A mixed methods, cluster randomized control trial in ninth grade mathematics classrooms. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 18(1):56-87.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2023.2287594",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2023.2287594",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "cluster RCT, 29 schools, 2,736 ninth graders: proficiency-based grades, formative feedback and reassessment for full credit raised end-of-course algebra and geometry scores by 0.33 SD",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impacts of a Standards-Based Grading System Emphasizing Formative Assessment, Feedback, and Re-Assessment: A Mixed Methods, Cluster Randomized Control Trial in Ninth Grade Mathematics Classrooms",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Kramer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2023_2287594.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gershenson S, Holt SB, Tyner A (2024). Making the grade: The effect of teacher grading standards on student outcomes. Contemporary Economic Policy 42(2):305-318.",
     "doi": "10.1111/coep.12637",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/coep.12637",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "North Carolina Algebra I 2006-2016 with teacher value-added controls: higher teacher grading standards raise contemporaneous achievement and performance in later math courses, similarly across student backgrounds",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Making the grade: The effect of teacher grading standards on student outcomes",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Contemporary Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Gershenson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_coep_12637.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Betts JR, Grogger J (2003). The impact of grading standards on student achievement, educational attainment, and entry-level earnings. Economics of Education Review 22(4):343-352.",
     "doi": "10.1016/S0272-7757(02)00059-6",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(02)00059-6",
     "year": 2003,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "High School and Beyond: higher school grading standards raise twelfth-grade test scores, with the largest gains for higher-achieving students and mixed effects on attainment",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of grading standards on student achievement, educational attainment, and entry-level earnings",
      "year": 2003,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Betts",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 134,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Figlio DN, Lucas ME (2004). Do high grading standards affect student performance? Journal of Public Economics 88(9-10):1815-1834.",
     "doi": "10.1016/S0047-2727(03)00039-2",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(03)00039-2",
     "year": 2004,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Florida elementary students assigned to teachers with higher grading standards gain more on state tests, with gains across the achievement distribution",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Do high grading standards affect student performance?",
      "year": 2004,
      "journal": "Journal of Public Economics",
      "first_author": "Figlio",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 147,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Carey T, Carifio J (2012). The minimum grading controversy: Results of a quantitative study of seven years of grading data from an urban high school. Educational Researcher 41(6):201-208.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189x12453309",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X12453309",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "single urban high school, seven years of grades under a 50-point minimum: no evidence of grade inflation or social promotion; the only outcome study of a minimum-grade policy",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Minimum Grading Controversy",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Carey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 22,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189x12453309.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Carifio J, Carey T (2009). A critical examination of current minimum grading policy recommendations. The High School Journal 93(1):23-37.",
     "doi": "10.1353/hsj.0.0039",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.0.0039",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "the measurement case for minimum grades and the acknowledgement that the empirical base for or against them is thin",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Critical Examination of Current Minimum Grading Policy Recommendations",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "The High School Journal",
      "first_author": "Carifio",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 25,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1353_hsj_0_0039.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Reeves DB (2004). The case against the zero. Phi Delta Kappan 86(4):324-325.",
     "doi": "10.1177/003172170408600418",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170408600418",
     "year": 2004,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "the arithmetic argument that a zero on a 100-point scale is disproportionate to an F on a 4-point scale; expert argument, not outcome data",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Case against the Zero",
      "year": 2004,
      "journal": "Phi Delta Kappan",
      "first_author": "Reeves",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 51,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_003172170408600418.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Welsh ME, D'Agostino JV, Kaniskan B (2013). Grading as a reform effort: Do standards-based grades converge with test scores? Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice 32(2):26-36.",
     "doi": "10.1111/emip.12009",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12009",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "125 grade 3 and 5 classrooms: standards-based report-card grades converge only moderately with state test levels, and most variance is within classrooms, so grading rules alone do not make grades accurate",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Grading as a Reform Effort: Do Standards‐Based Grades Converge With Test Scores?",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice",
      "first_author": "Welsh",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 34,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_emip_12009.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Guskey TR, Link LJ (2019). Exploring the factors teachers consider in determining students' grades. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice 26(3):303-320.",
     "doi": "10.1080/0969594X.2018.1555515",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2018.1555515",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "teachers weight homework, effort and behavior into grades to differing degrees by grade level, which is the inconsistency a written grading policy is meant to reduce",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Exploring the factors teachers consider in determining students’ grades",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice",
      "first_author": "Guskey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 75,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_0969594X_2018_1555515.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hjorth-Trolle A, Rosenqvist E, Hed H (2021). Grading practices and the social gradient in GPA: Quasi-experimental evidence from Sweden. European Sociological Review 38(3):455-471.",
     "doi": "10.1093/esr/jcab053",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcab053",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Sweden's 1997-98 switch from relative to absolute grading widened the GPA gap by parental education and narrowed the gender gap; grading reforms shift equity in both directions",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Grading Practices and the Social Gradient in GPA: Quasi-Experimental Evidence from Sweden",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "European Sociological Review",
      "first_author": "Hjorth-Trolle",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 6,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1093_esr_jcab053.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Feldman J (2018). Grading for Equity: What It Is, Why It Matters, and How It Can Transform Schools and Classrooms. Corwin, Thousand Oaks CA.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9781506391571",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "the practitioner framework (no zeros, 0-4 or minimum-50 scales, no behavior in academic grades, retakes) that many district grading policies adopt; pilot data only, no peer-reviewed causal evaluation",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Correlation between course grades and state or end-of-course test scores by school and course (gradebook export joined to assessment file); spread of failure rates across teachers of the same course; share of students with a D or F who passed the end-of-course exam and vice versa; count of grading appeals.",
   "standard": "The policy shall require every course to publish, before the first grading period, how grades are computed, shall separate academic achievement from behavior and compliance in the reported grade, shall allow at least one reassessment of a summative standard for credit, and shall not mandate or forbid numeric floors without the district's own grade-to-test data.",
   "model_clause": "Each teacher shall publish to students and parents, within the first ten school days of each course, the standards the course assesses, the categories and weights used to compute the grade, the reassessment procedure, and the late-work procedure. The reported academic grade shall reflect achievement on course standards; attendance, participation, effort and conduct shall be reported separately and shall not reduce the academic grade. A student who does not meet a standard on a summative assessment shall be permitted at least one reassessment of that standard within the grading period, and the higher score shall count. Late work submitted within the grading period shall be scored on the same standard as on-time work; any penalty for lateness shall be reported in the separate conduct or work-habits mark. Teachers of the same course in the same school shall use a common grading scale and weights. The Director of Assessment shall report to the Board each August, by school and course, the correlation between final grades and end-of-course or state test scores, the failure rate by teacher for courses with three or more sections, and the number of grading appeals, and shall recommend revisions to this policy where grades and test results diverge.",
   "red_flags": [
    "grading left entirely to individual teacher discretion with no published criteria",
    "attendance, participation or behavior deductions built into the academic grade",
    "no reassessment permitted or reassessment capped at a failing score",
    "a zero required for any missing work with no window to submit",
    "a mandated numeric floor adopted without any district grade-to-test review",
    "different weighting across sections of the same course"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "grading",
     "grades",
     "report card",
     "late work",
     "zero",
     "minimum grade",
     "standards-based grading",
     "retake",
     "reassessment",
     "grade point average",
     "homework weight"
    ],
    "regex": "grading (policy|practice|scale|system)|report card|late work|minimum grade|no[- ]zero|zeros?\\b|standards[- ]based grad|reassess|retake|grade point"
   },
   "law_notes": "Few states regulate K-12 grading beyond GPA calculation for scholarships and transcripts. South Carolina enacted a 2026 law prohibiting districts from requiring a minimum grade above a student's actual performance (reported by Education Week, August 2026; verify the statute before citing). A 2024 RAND survey found about 27 percent of teachers reported a 'no zeros' policy at their school or district.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Assessment, with the Chief Academic Officer responsible for building-level compliance",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Assessment drafts a one-page course grading plan template covering standards assessed, categories and weights, the reassessment procedure, and the late-work procedure, and the Chief Academic Officer approves it within 30 days of adoption.",
     "Each principal collects a completed grading plan from every teacher and confirms that teachers of the same course in the same school share a common scale and weights before the first ten school days of the next course start.",
     "The Director of Technology configures the student information system so attendance, participation, effort and conduct are entered in a separate work-habits mark that cannot alter the academic grade.",
     "The Director of Assessment requests a gradebook export and the end-of-course and state assessment file from the prior year and joins them by student and course to produce the first grade-to-test correlation by school and course within 90 days.",
     "The Superintendent designates a grading appeals contact in each school and instructs principals to log every appeal with its outcome."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Assessment delivers the first August report to the Board showing grade-to-test correlation by school and course, failure rate by teacher for courses with three or more sections, and the count of grading appeals.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer runs professional learning on standards-based grading with formative feedback and reassessment for all secondary math teachers first, because the entry's strongest evidence (a 0.33 SD gain in ninth-grade math) comes from that subject.",
     "Principals audit a sample of gradebooks each grading period to confirm reassessment was offered and the higher score was counted, and report findings to the Chief Academic Officer.",
     "The Director of Assessment presents the district's own grade-to-test data to the Board before any proposal to mandate or forbid a numeric floor, and the Board takes no action on floors without it."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Assessment repeats the August report to the Board every year and recommends policy revisions where grades and test results diverge.",
     "Principals verify the published grading plans at the start of every course and confirm common scales and weights across sections of the same course each semester.",
     "The Superintendent reviews the grading appeals log each year and refers any teacher or course with repeated appeals to the Chief Academic Officer for support."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Correlation between final course grades and end-of-course or state test scores by school and course; spread of failure rates across teachers of the same course; share of students with a D or F who passed the end-of-course exam and vice versa; count of grading appeals; share of courses with a published grading plan within ten school days.",
    "baseline": "The first joined gradebook and assessment file produced within 90 days of adoption sets the baseline for correlation, failure-rate spread, grade-test mismatch and appeals; publication compliance has no baseline until the first principal collection.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, 100 percent of courses have a published grading plan within the first ten school days and all same-course sections in a school use a common scale and weights; within 1 to 3 years, the grade-to-test correlation rises and the spread of failure rates across teachers of the same course narrows in every school and course relative to the baseline, and the share of students with a D or F who passed the exam, and with an A or B who failed it, falls each year.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric benchmark for grade-to-test correlation, failure-rate spread, or appeal counts, so the target is directional. The 0.33 SD effect from the PARLO standards-based grading RCT is the only outcome figure in the entry and applies to ninth-grade math test scores, not to the indicators above; the entry reports no causal outcome evidence for no-zero or minimum-grade rules, and a 2024 RAND survey finding that about 27 percent of teachers report a no-zeros policy is prevalence, not a benchmark.",
    "report": "The Director of Assessment reports to the Board each August, by school and course, with the first report due in the August following adoption and the baseline comparison carried forward in every later report."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "publish-grade-computation",
     "text": "The policy requires every course to publish how grades are computed before the first grading period.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "separate-achievement-from-behavior",
     "text": "The policy separates academic achievement from behavior and compliance in the reported grade.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "reassessment-for-credit",
     "text": "The policy allows at least one reassessment of a summative standard for credit.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-floor-mandate-without-data",
     "text": "The policy does not mandate or forbid numeric grade floors without the district's own grade-to-test data.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "high-dosage-tutoring",
   "domain": "High-dosage tutoring",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "graduation"
   ],
   "finding": "Across 96 randomized trials, tutoring raises achievement by about 0.29 SD, with the largest effects when teachers or paraprofessionals tutor, sessions run at least three days a week, and tutoring happens during the school day. Post-pandemic programs run at district scale have produced much smaller gains (0.04 to 0.09 SD in reading and no math effect in Nashville), and a 263-trial reanalysis puts the realistic effect of large, test-targeted programs at 0.16 to 0.22 SD.",
   "effect": "+0.29 SD pooled in RCTs; +0.18 to +0.40 SD math in Chicago Saga RCTs; +0.16 to +0.22 SD expected at scale; Nashville district program +0.04 to +0.09 SD reading, 0 in math",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Effects shrink sharply with program scale: Kraft, Schueler and Falken (2026) find pooled effects fall from 0.40 SD in the full sample to 0.16 to 0.22 SD in studies that resemble large, standardized-test-targeted programs. Metro Nashville's district-run program, delivered partly before and after school by a mix of teachers and volunteers, produced only small reading gains and no math or grade effects (Kraft, Edwards and Cannata 2024). Opt-in and on-demand online tutoring is rarely used (under 1 percent of eligible students in New Mexico) and reaches higher-performing students. Pre-pandemic RCT effects came from programs costing several thousand dollars per student; thinner programs should expect thinner results.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Nickow A, Oreopoulos P, Quan V (2024). The Promise of Tutoring for PreK-12 Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence. American Educational Research Journal 61(1):74-107.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00028312231208687",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Pooled effect of 0.288 SD across tutoring RCTs; largest for teacher and paraprofessional tutors, 3 or more days a week, during school",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Promise of Tutoring for PreK–12 Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Nickow",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 83,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00028312231208687.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Nickow A, Oreopoulos P, Quan V (2020). The Impressive Effects of Tutoring on PreK-12 Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence. NBER Working Paper 27476.",
     "doi": "10.3386/w27476",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Earlier version of the same review reporting a 0.37 SD pooled effect; the source of the widely quoted figure",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impressive Effects of Tutoring on PreK-12 Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Nickow",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 171,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3386_w27476.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Schueler BE, Falken G (2026). What Impacts Should We Expect From Tutoring at Scale? Exploring Meta-Analytic Generalizability. Review of Educational Research.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00346543261446660",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "263 RCTs; effects fall to 0.16 to 0.22 SD when the sample is restricted to large programs targeting standardized tests",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "What Impacts Should We Expect From Tutoring at Scale? Exploring Meta-Analytic Generalizability",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 6,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00346543261446660.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Guryan J, Ludwig J, Bhatt MP, Cook PJ, Davis JMV, Dodge K, et al. (2023). Not Too Late: Improving Academic Outcomes among Adolescents. American Economic Review 113(3):738-765.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aer.20210434",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Two Chicago RCTs of Saga/Match in-school math tutoring with paraprofessional tutors: +0.18 to +0.40 SD math scores, higher grades, effects persist",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Not Too Late: Improving Academic Outcomes among Adolescents",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "American Economic Review",
      "first_author": "Guryan",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 77,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aer_20210434.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Falken GT (2021). A Blueprint for Scaling Tutoring and Mentoring Across Public Schools. AERA Open 7.",
     "doi": "10.1177/23328584211042858",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Design framework for scaling tutoring: in-school, embedded in the schedule, consistent tutors, priority to high-need schools; cost estimates of 5 to 16 billion dollars a year nationally",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Blueprint for Scaling Tutoring and Mentoring Across Public Schools",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 69,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_23328584211042858.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Edwards DS, Cannata M (2024). The Scaling Dynamics and Causal Effects of a District-Operated Tutoring Program. EdWorkingPaper 24-1030, Annenberg Institute at Brown University.",
     "doi": "10.26300/zcw7-4547",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Metro Nashville district program, 125,000 hours to 6,800 students: +0.04 to +0.09 SD reading, no math or grade effects; implementation lessons",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Scaling Dynamics and Causal Effects of a District-Operated Tutoring Program",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "edworkingpapers.com",
      "first_author": "Kraft, Matthew A.",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dietrichson J, Bog M, Filges T, Klint Jorgensen AM (2017). Academic Interventions for Elementary and Middle School Students With Low Socioeconomic Status: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research 87(2):243-282.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654316687036",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Tutoring is among the most effective interventions for low-SES students in a review of 101 studies",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Academic Interventions for Elementary and Middle School Students With Low Socioeconomic Status: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Dietrichson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 288,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654316687036.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of students below benchmark on the district's interim assessment who received tutoring at least three sessions a week for at least ten weeks during the school day, by school and student group; sessions delivered versus scheduled; tutor consistency (share of sessions with the student's assigned tutor); growth of tutored versus matched non-tutored students on the interim assessment.",
   "standard": "Every student below benchmark on the district assessment shall be scheduled for tutoring in groups of four or fewer, at least three sessions a week of 30 minutes or more, during the school day, with a consistent trained tutor, and the district shall track delivered dosage and report it by school and student group.",
   "model_clause": "Students who score below the district benchmark on the fall or winter interim assessment in reading or mathematics shall be enrolled in tutoring in groups of no more than four students, for no fewer than three sessions per week of at least thirty minutes each, delivered during the regular school day by a consistent tutor who has completed district training and uses district-approved materials aligned to the core curriculum. Tutoring shall not be offered solely on an opt-in, on-demand, or outside-school-hours basis. The principal of each school shall record sessions scheduled and sessions delivered for each tutored student. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by December 15 and by June 15 each year: the number and share of eligible students tutored, average sessions delivered per week, tutor consistency, and the assessment growth of tutored students compared with similar non-tutored students, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status.",
   "red_flags": [
    "tutoring offered only after school, before school, or online on demand",
    "tutoring available on request or by referral only",
    "no dosage, frequency, or group-size requirement",
    "tutoring assigned to unpaid volunteers without training",
    "no reporting of who received tutoring or how much"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "tutoring",
     "high-dosage",
     "high-impact tutoring",
     "academic intervention",
     "accelerated instruction",
     "learning recovery"
    ],
    "regex": "tutor(ing|s)?|high[- ]dosage|high[- ]impact tutoring|accelerated instruction|learning (loss|recovery)|supplemental instruction"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal mandate; ESSER funds that paid for most pandemic tutoring had to be obligated by September 30, 2024, so programs now depend on local, Title I, and state funds. Texas HB 4545 (2021), as amended by HB 1416 (2023), requires accelerated instruction, including supplemental instruction in groups of no more than four, for students who do not pass STAAR. Several states (for example Tennessee's TN ALL Corps) fund tutoring with dosage conditions.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Chief Academic Officer managing the program and each principal accountable for delivery in their school",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Chief Academic Officer identifies every student below benchmark on the most recent fall or winter interim assessment in reading or mathematics and sends each principal a roster within 30 days.",
     "Each principal builds a master schedule that places tutoring during the regular school day in groups of four or fewer at least three sessions a week of 30 minutes or more, and submits it to the Superintendent within 60 days.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer selects district-approved tutoring materials aligned to the core curriculum and delivers tutor training to teachers and paraprofessionals assigned as tutors before the first session.",
     "The Chief Financial Officer identifies local, Title I, and state funds to replace expired ESSER money and presents a funded staffing plan to the Board within 90 days.",
     "The data office builds a tracking system that records sessions scheduled, sessions delivered, and assigned tutor for each tutored student by the end of the first 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal records sessions scheduled and sessions delivered for every tutored student each week and reviews dosage with the Chief Academic Officer monthly.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer matches tutored students to similar non-tutored students and computes interim assessment growth for both groups after the winter and spring administrations.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first reports to the Board by December 15 and June 15 showing share of eligible students tutored, average sessions per week, tutor consistency, and growth, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status.",
     "The Superintendent directs any school where delivered dosage falls short of three sessions a week to submit a corrective schedule within 30 days."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by December 15 and June 15 every year on eligibility, dosage, tutor consistency, and comparative growth.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer re-runs eligibility after each fall and winter interim assessment and enrolls newly eligible students within 30 days.",
     "The Board reviews the June report each year and renews or adjusts the program funding and staffing for the following year."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of students below benchmark on the interim assessment who received tutoring at least three sessions a week for at least ten weeks during the school day, by school and student group; sessions delivered versus scheduled; share of sessions with the student's assigned tutor; interim assessment growth of tutored students compared with matched non-tutored students.",
    "baseline": "Share of below-benchmark students currently receiving tutoring that meets the dosage standard, sessions delivered versus scheduled, and tutor consistency as recorded in the first report after adoption; most districts will have no prior dosage record, so the first December 15 report sets the baseline.",
    "target": "Within one year, every student identified below benchmark is enrolled and the share receiving at least three sessions a week for at least ten weeks during the school day rises each reporting period, with no student group lagging the district rate; within 1 to 3 years, tutored students show growth on the interim assessment greater than matched non-tutored students in both reading and mathematics.",
    "benchmark": "Randomized trials show about 0.29 SD pooled, 0.18 to 0.40 SD in math in the Chicago Saga trials, and a realistic 0.16 to 0.22 SD for large test-targeted programs at scale; the Nashville district program produced only 0.04 to 0.09 SD in reading and no math effect, which marks the floor the district should aim to exceed.",
    "report": "Superintendent reports to the Board by December 15 and June 15 each year, disaggregated by school, race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, with any school below the dosage standard named and its corrective schedule attached."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "universal-dosage",
     "text": "The policy schedules every student below benchmark on the district assessment for tutoring at least three sessions a week of 30 minutes or more.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "group-size",
     "text": "The policy limits tutoring groups to four or fewer students.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "school-day",
     "text": "The policy requires that tutoring happen during the school day.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "trained-tutor",
     "text": "The policy requires each student to have a consistent trained tutor.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "track-dosage",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to track the tutoring dosage actually delivered.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "report-by-group",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to report delivered dosage by school and student group.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "curriculum-materials",
   "domain": "High-quality instructional materials and adoption",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Which textbook a district adopts can move achievement as much as many costlier reforms: in California the best-performing elementary math series outscored its rivals by 0.05 to 0.08 SD at near-zero marginal cost, a randomized IES trial found differences of 4 to 7 percentile points between first and second grade math curricula, and a field experiment giving teachers high-quality off-the-shelf lessons raised math achievement by 0.06 SD at about 6 dollars per student. Effects depend on the specific materials and their use with aligned professional development; districts' formal adoption processes rarely examine evidence of effectiveness.",
   "effect": "Textbook choice: 0.05 to 0.08 SD (California), roughly 0.1 to 0.17 SD between best and worst in the IES RCT. Online lessons plus supports: +0.06 SD math (RCT). Curriculum plus curriculum-based PD: positive effects on science achievement (RCT). Six-state Common Core era study: no detectable differences among textbooks.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Blazar et al. (2020) examined elementary math textbooks across six states after the Common Core transition and found no meaningful differences in achievement among the most widely used books, a null that contrasts with the earlier California and Indiana findings; one explanation is that textbook use had become fragmented and teachers supplemented heavily. Effects in the IES trial and in California varied by grade and did not always persist. Standards alignment on the cover is unreliable: Polikoff (2015) found textbooks labeled Common Core aligned were poorly aligned. Materials without aligned professional development and without time to implement show weak effects, and Jackson and Makarin's gains were concentrated among teachers who actually used the lessons. Evidence for English language arts and secondary materials is thinner than for elementary math.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Koedel, C., Li, D., Polikoff, M. S., Hardaway, T., & Wrabel, S. L. (2017). Mathematics Curriculum Effects on Student Achievement in California. AERA Open 3(1).",
     "doi": "10.1177/2332858417690511",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858417690511",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Among 1,878 California elementary schools using the four most popular math series, one series raised grade 3 achievement by 0.05 to 0.08 SD relative to the others, persisting four years, at essentially zero marginal cost",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Mathematics Curriculum Effects on Student Achievement in California",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Koedel",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 47,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2332858417690511.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Koedel, C., & Polikoff, M. (2017). Big bang for just a few bucks: The impact of math textbooks in California. Evidence Speaks Reports 2(5). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/es_20170105_polikoff_evidence_speaks.pdf",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Policy summary of the California textbook study: curriculum choice is among the most cost-effective levers available to districts and states collect almost no data on which materials schools use",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jackson, C. K., & Makarin, A. (2018). Can Online Off-the-Shelf Lessons Improve Student Outcomes? Evidence from a Field Experiment. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 10(3):226-254.",
     "doi": "10.1257/pol.20170211",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20170211",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Middle school math teachers randomized to receive high-quality online lessons plus light support raised student achievement by 0.06 SD, larger for weaker teachers, at about 6 dollars per student",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Can Online Off-the-Shelf Lessons Improve Student Outcomes? Evidence from a Field Experiment",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Jackson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 51,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_pol_20170211.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Agodini, R., Harris, B., Thomas, M., Murphy, R., & Gallagher, L. (2010). Achievement Effects of Four Early Elementary School Math Curricula: Findings for First and Second Graders. NCEE 2011-4001. Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20114001/",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "110 schools in 12 districts randomized among four math curricula: Math Expressions and Saxon outperformed SFAW and Investigations by 4 to 7 percentile points after one year",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bhatt, R., & Koedel, C. (2012). Large-Scale Evaluations of Curricular Effectiveness: The Case of Elementary Mathematics in Indiana. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 34(4):391-412.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373712440040",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373712440040",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Indiana schools' choice among three elementary math curricula produced achievement differences on the order of 0.1 SD, showing that observational state data can identify effective materials",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Large-Scale Evaluations of Curricular Effectiveness",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Bhatt",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 35,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373712440040.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Blazar, D., Heller, B., Kane, T. J., Polikoff, M., Staiger, D. O., Carrell, S., Goldhaber, D., Harris, D. N., Hitch, R., Holden, K. L., & Kurlaender, M. (2020). Curriculum Reform in the Common Core Era: Evaluating Elementary Math Textbooks Across Six U.S. States. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 39(4):966-1019.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22257",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22257",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Across six states, no detectable achievement differences among widely used elementary math textbooks in the Common Core era; the textbook effect is not guaranteed",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Curriculum Reform in The Common Core Era: Evaluating Elementary Math Textbooks Across Six U.S. States",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Blazar",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 25,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22257.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Taylor, J. A., Getty, S. R., Kowalski, S. M., Wilson, C. D., Carlson, J., & Van Scotter, P. (2015). An Efficacy Trial of Research-Based Curriculum Materials With Curriculum-Based Professional Development. American Educational Research Journal 52(5):984-1017.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831215585962",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831215585962",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Randomizing middle school science teachers to research-based curriculum materials with curriculum-based professional development improved student science achievement relative to business as usual",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "An Efficacy Trial of Research-Based Curriculum Materials With Curriculum-Based Professional Development",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Taylor",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 46,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831215585962.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Polikoff, M. S., Campbell, S. E., Rabovsky, S., Koedel, C., Le, Q. T., Hardaway, T., & Gasparian, H. (2020). The formalized processes districts use to evaluate mathematics textbooks. Journal of Curriculum Studies 52(4):451-477.",
     "doi": "10.1080/00220272.2020.1747116",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2020.1747116",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Analysis of district textbook adoption rubrics: districts weigh usability and surface alignment and rarely consider evidence of effectiveness or independent quality reviews",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The formalized processes districts use to evaluate mathematics textbooks",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Curriculum Studies",
      "first_author": "Polikoff",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 15,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_00220272_2020_1747116.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kaufman, J. H., Doan, S., & Fernandez, M. P. (2021). The Rise of Standards-Aligned Instructional Materials for U.S. K-12 Mathematics and English Language Arts Instruction. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RRA134-11",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA134-11",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "National teacher survey: use of materials rated standards-aligned by EdReports rose but remained a minority of classrooms, and teachers commonly substitute self-made or free online materials",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Rise of Standards-Aligned Instructional Materials for U.S. K–12 Mathematics and English Language Arts Instruction: Findings from the 2021 American Instructional Resources Survey",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 0.65
     },
     "cited_by": 0,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RRA134_11.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Steiner, D. (2017). Curriculum Research: What We Know and Where We Need to Go. Washington, DC: StandardsWork, for the Knowledge Matters Campaign.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://standardswork.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/sw-curriculum-research-report-fnl.pdf",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Review concluding that curriculum choice can substantially affect learning, that the evidence base is thin because states and districts do not track materials in use, and that adoption should rest on quality reviews plus evidence",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Inventory of core materials in use by subject and grade with the adoption year (curriculum office records); independent quality rating of each adopted core program (EdReports or state review) at the time of adoption; share of classrooms using the adopted core program as the primary resource (teacher survey or walkthrough); hours of curriculum-specific professional development per teacher in the adoption year; student achievement and growth before and after each adoption, tracked by the district for at least three years.",
   "standard": "The district shall adopt core instructional materials for each subject and grade through a published process that requires an independent quality review, consideration of effectiveness evidence, a classroom pilot, and a curriculum-specific professional development plan, and shall maintain a public inventory of materials in use with achievement tracked after each adoption.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall maintain and post on the district website an inventory of the core instructional materials in use in every subject and grade, with the adoption year and the independent quality rating of each program. Core materials shall be adopted only through a process that includes an independent standards-alignment and quality review (such as EdReports or the state review), a written summary of available effectiveness evidence for each finalist, a pilot of at least one semester in at least two schools with teacher and student feedback, and a curriculum-specific professional development plan providing at least 20 hours of training to every teacher using the materials in the first year. Core materials shall be reviewed at least every six years. Teachers shall use the adopted core program as the primary instructional resource and may supplement it; supplemental materials used for more than 20 percent of instructional time in a course shall be reported to the principal. The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum shall report to the Board by August 31 of each year: the inventory, the share of classrooms using the adopted core program as primary (from the annual teacher survey and walkthroughs), curriculum professional development hours delivered, and achievement and growth in each subject for three years following each adoption.",
   "red_flags": [
    "adoption process based on teacher preference or publisher presentation alone",
    "no independent quality review required",
    "no pilot or evidence summary before adoption",
    "materials adopted without a professional development plan",
    "no inventory of materials in use",
    "adoption cycle longer than seven years or unspecified",
    "policy addresses only objectionable content review, not quality"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "instructional materials",
     "textbook",
     "curriculum adoption",
     "adoption",
     "core curriculum",
     "curriculum materials",
     "high-quality instructional materials",
     "HQIM",
     "EdReports",
     "supplemental materials",
     "selection of materials"
    ],
    "regex": "instructional materials|textbooks?|curricul(um|a) (adoption|materials|selection|review)|adoption of (materials|textbooks|curricul)|\\bHQIM\\b|edreports|supplement(al|ary) materials"
   },
   "law_notes": "About 20 states run state textbook adoption lists that districts must choose from or justify departing from (for example Texas Education Code Chapter 31, California Education Code 60200 et seq. for K-8, Florida Statute 1006.28 to 1006.42). Several states now require or fund high-quality instructional materials: Louisiana's tiered review, Tennessee's 2019 to 2021 ELA adoption and the Tennessee Literacy Success Act, Nebraska and Rhode Island HQIM laws, and Texas House Bill 1605 (2023) funding state-approved materials. Many state laws since 2021 add parent review and objection procedures for materials; these address content, not quality.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum compiles the inventory of core instructional materials in use in every subject and grade, with the adoption year and the EdReports or state review rating of each program, and the Superintendent posts it on the district website.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum drafts the published adoption process covering the independent quality review, the written effectiveness-evidence summary for each finalist, the one-semester pilot in at least two schools, and the 20-hour curriculum-specific professional development plan, and the Superintendent brings it to the Board for approval.",
     "The curriculum office flags every core program on the inventory that lacks an independent quality rating or is more than six years past adoption and schedules each for review.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum confirms with district counsel whether the state runs an adoption list the district must choose from or justify departing from, and adds that step to the process.",
     "The curriculum office adds items to the annual teacher survey asking which program teachers use as the primary resource and whether supplemental materials exceed 20 percent of instructional time in any course."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum runs the first adoption under the new process for the subject and grade band with the oldest or lowest-rated core program, including the pilot in at least two schools with teacher and student feedback.",
     "Principals and the curriculum office deliver at least 20 hours of curriculum-specific professional development to every teacher using newly adopted materials in the first year and log hours per teacher.",
     "Principals conduct classroom walkthroughs and the curriculum office administers the teacher survey to measure the share of classrooms using the adopted core program as the primary resource.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum delivers the first annual report to the Board by August 31 with the inventory, primary-use share, professional development hours, and baseline achievement in each subject."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum reports to the Board by August 31 each year and tracks achievement and growth for three years after every adoption.",
     "The curriculum office reviews every core program at least every six years through the published adoption process.",
     "Principals collect reports from teachers whose supplemental materials exceed 20 percent of instructional time in a course and share a summary with the curriculum office."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of core programs on the public inventory that have an independent quality rating and were adopted through the published process, share of classrooms using the adopted core program as primary, curriculum-specific professional development hours per teacher in adoption year, and achievement and growth in each subject for three years after each adoption.",
    "baseline": "Current inventory of core materials by subject and grade with adoption year and quality rating, current share of classrooms using the adopted program as primary from the first teacher survey and walkthroughs, and achievement in each subject in the year before the first adoption under the new process.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, the full inventory is posted and every new adoption follows the published process with a semester pilot in at least two schools and at least 20 hours of professional development per teacher in the first year; within 3 years of each adoption, the share of classrooms using the core program as primary rises from baseline and achievement and growth in that subject improve relative to the pre-adoption year.",
    "benchmark": "Research gives effect sizes, not district targets: 0.05 to 0.08 SD between elementary math series in California, 0.1 to 0.17 SD between best and worst in the IES RCT, and +0.06 SD from high-quality off-the-shelf lessons; a six-state study found no detectable differences, so the entry supports a directional target, not a numeric district benchmark.",
    "report": "Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum reports to the Board by August 31 each year, with the inventory posted on the district website."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "published-adoption-process",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to adopt core instructional materials for each subject and grade through a published adoption process.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "independent-quality-review",
     "text": "The policy requires an independent quality review of candidate materials before adoption.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "effectiveness-evidence",
     "text": "The policy requires consideration of evidence of effectiveness before materials are adopted.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "classroom-pilot",
     "text": "The policy requires a classroom pilot of candidate materials before adoption.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "pd-plan",
     "text": "The policy requires a curriculum-specific professional development plan as part of each adoption.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "inventory-and-tracking",
     "text": "The policy requires a public inventory of materials in use with achievement tracked after each adoption.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "homework",
   "domain": "Homework",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "mental-health",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Homework has a small to moderate positive association with achievement in secondary grades and little or none in elementary grades; the relation runs through how often and how well homework is assigned, not how many hours students spend on it. Beyond roughly ten minutes per grade level per night the returns flatten, stress rises, and the benefit accrues more to higher-income students.",
   "effect": "Cooper 2006: d about 0.6 in the few experimental comparisons, secondary correlations r about 0.25, elementary near zero; Fan 2017: small positive effect in math and science; high-performing high schools average 3 hours per night with higher stress",
   "evidence_tier": "C",
   "counter_evidence": "The meta-analyses pool mostly correlational studies, and time on homework may reflect struggling as much as learning (Trautwein 2007 finds frequency, not time, predicts achievement). Daw (2012) and Ronning (2011) find that homework widens socioeconomic gaps because higher-income students gain more from each hour, and Ronning finds low-SES students may be harmed. Galloway, Conner and Pope (2013) report that high-performing high school students averaging more than three hours a night show more academic stress, physical complaints and less balance. Pressman et al. (2015) find primary school children receive about three times the ten-minute guideline and that family stress rises with load. Eren and Henderson (2008) find positive effects that are concentrated among high and low achievers, with a share of students responding negatively to more homework. No randomized trial of district homework policy exists.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Cooper H, Robinson JC, Patall EA (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research 76(1):1-62.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00346543076001001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543076001001",
     "year": 2006,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "positive homework-achievement relation that is stronger in grades 7-12 than in elementary grades, and the ten-minutes-per-grade guideline",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987–2003",
      "year": 2006,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Cooper",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1230,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00346543076001001.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fan H, Xu J, Cai Z, He J, Fan X (2017). Homework and students' achievement in math and science: A 30-year meta-analysis, 1986-2015. Educational Research Review 20:35-54.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.003",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.003",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "30 years of studies: small positive overall relation between homework and math and science achievement, moderated by grade level and how homework is measured",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Homework and students' achievement in math and science: A 30-year meta-analysis, 1986–2015",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Educational Research Review",
      "first_author": "Fan",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 258,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bas G, Senturk C, Cigerci FM (2017). Homework and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Issues in Educational Research 27(1):31-50.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "http://www.iier.org.au/iier27/bas.pdf",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "small overall effect of homework on achievement (d = 0.23), differing by subject more than by grade",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Trautwein U (2007). The homework-achievement relation reconsidered: Differentiating homework time, homework frequency, and homework effort. Learning and Instruction 17(3):372-388.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.02.009",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.02.009",
     "year": 2007,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "homework frequency and effort predict achievement; time spent does not, and at the student level more time can signal difficulty",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The homework–achievement relation reconsidered: Differentiating homework time, homework frequency, and homework effort",
      "year": 2007,
      "journal": "Learning and Instruction",
      "first_author": "Trautwein",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 378,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fernandez-Alonso R, Suarez-Alvarez J, Muniz J (2015). Adolescents' homework performance in mathematics and science: Personal factors and teaching practices. Journal of Educational Psychology 107(4):1075-1085.",
     "doi": "10.1037/edu0000032",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000032",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "7,725 Spanish adolescents: achievement peaks around one hour of daily homework done independently; more time with more help predicts lower scores",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Adolescents’ homework performance in mathematics and science: Personal factors and teaching practices.",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Educational Psychology",
      "first_author": "Fernández-Alonso",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 124,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_edu0000032.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Eren O, Henderson DJ (2008). The impact of homework on student achievement. Econometrics Journal 11(2):326-348.",
     "doi": "10.1111/j.1368-423X.2008.00244.x",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1368-423X.2008.00244.x",
     "year": 2008,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "NELS math: additional homework raises test scores more than most spending inputs, with the gains concentrated among high and low achievers and a minority of students responding negatively",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of homework on student achievement",
      "year": 2008,
      "journal": "Econometrics Journal",
      "first_author": "Eren",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 76,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_j_1368_423X_2008_00244_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ronning M (2011). Who benefits from homework assignments? Economics of Education Review 30(1):55-64.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2010.07.001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2010.07.001",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Norwegian TIMSS data: homework raises achievement for students from higher-educated families and not for those from less-educated families, widening the gap",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Who benefits from homework assignments?",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Rønning",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 99,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Daw J (2012). Parental income and the fruits of labor: Variability in homework efficacy in secondary school. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 30(3):246-264.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.rssm.2012.01.004",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2012.01.004",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "US national sample: higher-income students gain more from each hour of homework in every grade and subject but history, so more assigned homework widens the SES gap",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Parental income and the fruits of labor: Variability in homework efficacy in secondary school",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Research in Social Stratification and Mobility",
      "first_author": "Daw",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 28,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Galloway M, Conner J, Pope D (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools. Journal of Experimental Education 81(4):490-510.",
     "doi": "10.1080/00220973.2012.745469",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2012.745469",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "4,317 students in 10 high-performing high schools average over 3 hours a night and report more stress, physical health problems and less balance as hours rise",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "The Journal of Experimental Education",
      "first_author": "Galloway",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 127,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_00220973_2012_745469.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Pressman RM, Sugarman DB, Nemon ML, Desjarlais J, Owens JA, Schettini-Evans A (2015). Homework and family stress: With consideration of parents' self confidence, educational level, and cultural background. American Journal of Family Therapy 43(4):297-313.",
     "doi": "10.1080/01926187.2015.1061407",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2015.1061407",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "primary school children receive about three times the ten-minute guideline; family stress rises with load and falls with parents' confidence to help",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Homework and Family Stress: With Consideration of Parents’ Self Confidence, Educational Level, and Cultural Background",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "The American Journal of Family Therapy",
      "first_author": "Pressman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 59,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_01926187_2015_1061407.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Expected and reported nightly minutes by grade band (annual student and family survey); share of final grade weight assigned to homework by course (gradebook categories); share of students reporting more than two hours per night in high school; homework completion rate by free-lunch status.",
   "standard": "The policy shall state maximum nightly homework time by grade band (none required in K-2, no more than ten minutes per grade level through grade 8, no more than two hours total in high school), shall cap homework at a minor share of the academic grade, and shall require that assigned homework be practice of taught material that a student can complete without adult help or paid resources.",
   "model_clause": "Homework shall be assigned only to practice or extend material already taught in class and shall be designed so that a student can complete it without adult assistance, internet access beyond district-provided devices, or purchased materials. No homework shall be required in kindergarten through grade 2 other than nightly reading. Expected homework time in grades 3 through 8 shall not exceed ten minutes per grade level per school night across all subjects, and in grades 9 through 12 shall not exceed two hours per school night across all subjects; department chairs at each secondary school shall coordinate assignment calendars so that the total stays within the limit. No homework shall be assigned over scheduled school breaks. Homework shall count for no more than ten percent of the academic grade in any course, and missing homework shall not be the sole basis for a failing grade. The Superintendent shall survey students and parents each March on reported nightly homework time by grade and shall report the results to the Board by May 31, together with the homework grade weight by course, and shall direct principals to correct any school where reported time exceeds the limit.",
   "red_flags": [
    "no stated time limit by grade band",
    "homework required in kindergarten or grade 1 beyond reading",
    "homework weighted at 20 percent or more of the grade",
    "zeros for missing homework with no make-up window",
    "homework assigned over breaks or holidays",
    "assignments that require printing, purchased supplies or parent participation",
    "homework used as a disciplinary consequence"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "homework",
     "home assignments",
     "out-of-class work",
     "independent practice",
     "study time",
     "ten-minute rule"
    ],
    "regex": "homework|home ?assignment|out[- ]of[- ](class|school) (work|assignment)|independent practice"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal law. California AB 2999 (Healthy Homework Act, Chapter 751, Statutes of 2024, signed September 27, 2024) directs the state to post homework guidelines and encourages, but does not require, districts to adopt a homework policy by the 2027-28 school year that weighs student health, time and equity. Elsewhere homework is a district matter; the National PTA and NEA ten-minutes-per-grade guideline is the common reference.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum and Instruction as day-to-day lead",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent issues the grade-band time limits (none in K-2 beyond nightly reading, ten minutes per grade level in grades 3 through 8, two hours in grades 9 through 12) and the ten percent grade-weight cap to all principals in writing within 30 days of adoption.",
     "Principals direct every teacher to set the homework category in the gradebook to no more than ten percent of the course grade within 60 days and confirm compliance to the Assistant Superintendent.",
     "Department chairs at each secondary school build a shared assignment calendar within 90 days so that total expected homework across all subjects stays within the two-hour limit.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum and Instruction drafts the March student and family homework survey, covering reported nightly minutes by grade and whether assignments required adult help, internet beyond district devices, or purchased materials, and the Board reviews the draft within 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent administers the homework survey to students and parents in March and reports results by grade band and by free-lunch status to the Board by May 31, together with the homework grade weight by course from the gradebook.",
     "Principals, with department chairs, review homework assignments each semester against the practice-only and no-adult-help standard and remove or redesign assignments that fail it.",
     "The Superintendent directs principals at any school where reported time exceeds the limit to submit a correction plan within 30 days of the May report."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent repeats the March survey and May 31 Board report each year, including the share of high school students reporting more than two hours per night and the homework completion rate by free-lunch status.",
     "Principals audit gradebook categories each semester to confirm homework stays at or below ten percent of the course grade and that no student has failed solely for missing homework."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of students in each grade band whose reported nightly homework time exceeds the policy limit (ten minutes per grade level in grades 3 through 8, two hours in grades 9 through 12), from the annual March student and family survey; share of courses with homework weighted above ten percent of the grade; homework completion rate gap by free-lunch status.",
    "baseline": "First March survey and gradebook pull after adoption; the entry reports that high-performing high schools average about three hours per night, so a district baseline above the two-hour limit is plausible.",
    "target": "By the second May 31 report, no school reports average nightly time above the grade-band limit, no course weights homework above ten percent of the grade, and the share of high school students reporting more than two hours per night falls each year compared with the prior survey; the completion gap by free-lunch status narrows year over year within 1 to 3 years.",
    "benchmark": "The National PTA and NEA ten-minutes-per-grade guideline and the policy's two-hour high school cap are the only numeric reference points; the entry gives no benchmark for completion rate or stress, so those targets are directional.",
    "report": "Superintendent reports to the Board by May 31 each year with survey results by grade band and free-lunch status, homework grade weight by course, the list of schools exceeding the limit, and the correction directed at each."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "nightly-time-caps-by-grade-band",
     "text": "The policy states maximum nightly homework time by grade band: none required in K-2, no more than ten minutes per grade level through grade 8, no more than two hours total in high school.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "minor-share-of-grade",
     "text": "The policy caps homework at a minor share of the academic grade.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "practice-of-taught-material",
     "text": "The policy requires that assigned homework be practice of material already taught in class.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-adult-help-or-paid-resources",
     "text": "The policy requires that assigned homework be completable by a student without adult help or paid resources.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "math-acceleration-and-tracking",
   "domain": "Math acceleration, eighth grade algebra, and tracking",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "postsecondary",
    "graduation"
   ],
   "finding": "The evidence favors objective, transparent placement into accelerated math with instructional support, and cuts against both extremes. Placing moderately prepared students into Algebra I in eighth grade without extra support lowered their pass rates and later math course completion in North Carolina and reduced tenth grade math scores in California's push for algebra for all; placing students by an objective prior-achievement rule in Wake County removed race and income from placement decisions, and a randomized Dee and Huffaker study found that putting below-grade-level ninth graders into Algebra I with teacher training raised grade 11 math achievement by up to 0.2 SD. Delaying algebra for everyone, as San Francisco did, cut AP math participation 15 percent at first and left ethnoracial gaps unchanged.",
   "effect": "Universal early algebra without support: negative on test scores and later course passing. Objective placement rule: equity of placement improved, test scores unchanged, grades lower. Detracking plus teacher training (Algebra I for below-grade-level ninth graders): +0.2 SD grade 11 math, attendance up. SFUSD delay of Algebra I: AP math participation initially down 6 percentage points, gaps unchanged. Double-dose algebra for low scorers: college enrollment up.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Results depend on who is accelerated and what support comes with it. Clotfelter, Ladd and Vigdor (2015) found that Charlotte-Mecklenburg students accelerated into eighth grade algebra scored lower on the Algebra I exam and were less likely to pass geometry and Algebra II later. Domina et al. (2015) found that raising eighth grade algebra enrollment lowered tenth grade math achievement in large California districts. Chicago's curriculum-for-all policy raised algebra credits but also failure rates with no test score gains (Allensworth et al. 2009). Wake County's objective rule improved access but accelerated students did not gain on test scores or college readiness and earned lower grades (Dougherty et al. 2017). On the other side, removing eighth grade algebra for all students in San Francisco did not close gaps and initially reduced AP calculus participation (Huffaker, Novicoff and Dee 2025). High-achiever classrooms raised Black and Hispanic scores by 0.5 SD in one district (Card and Giuliano 2016), so grouping by readiness can help the students it is meant to help when seats are allocated by objective criteria.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Dougherty SM, Goodman JS, Hill DV, Litke EG, Page LC (2015). Middle School Math Acceleration and Equitable Access to Eighth-Grade Algebra: Evidence From the Wake County Public School System. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 37(1S):80S-101S.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373715576076",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Objective prior-achievement placement rule severed the link between race or income and accelerated math placement and raised the share on track for algebra by eighth grade",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Middle School Math Acceleration and Equitable Access to Eighth-Grade Algebra",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Dougherty",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 48,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373715576076.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dougherty SM, Goodman JS, Hill DV, Litke EG, Page LC (2017). Objective course placement and college readiness: Evidence from targeted middle school math acceleration. Economics of Education Review 58:141-161.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.04.002",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Students accelerated by the rule took more advanced math but did not gain on test scores or college readiness and earned lower middle school grades",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Objective course placement and college readiness: Evidence from targeted middle school math acceleration",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Dougherty",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 40,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Clotfelter CT, Ladd HF, Vigdor JL (2015). The Aftermath of Accelerating Algebra: Evidence from District Policy Initiatives. Journal of Human Resources 50(1):159-188.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.50.1.159",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Charlotte-Mecklenburg's acceleration of moderately performing students into eighth grade algebra lowered Algebra I exam scores and later passage of geometry and Algebra II",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Aftermath of Accelerating Algebra",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Clotfelter",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 14,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_50_1_159.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Domina T, McEachin A, Penner A, Penner E (2015). Aiming High and Falling Short: California's Eighth-Grade Algebra-for-All Effort. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 37(3):275-295.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373714543685",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "District-level panel: raising eighth grade algebra enrollment lowered tenth grade math achievement, driven by large districts",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Aiming High and Falling Short",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Domina",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 72,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373714543685.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Allensworth E, Nomi T, Montgomery N, Lee VE (2009). College Preparatory Curriculum for All: Academic Consequences of Requiring Algebra and English I for Ninth Graders in Chicago. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 31(4):367-391.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373709343471",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Ending remedial ninth grade courses raised algebra credits and reduced course-taking inequity but raised failure rates with no test score or college enrollment gains",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "College Preparatory Curriculum for All: Academic Consequences of Requiring Algebra and English I for Ninth Graders in Chicago",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Allensworth",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 170,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373709343471.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cortes KE, Goodman JS, Nomi T (2015). Intensive Math Instruction and Educational Attainment: Long-Run Impacts of Double-Dose Algebra. Journal of Human Resources 50(1):108-158.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.50.1.108",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Chicago's double-dose algebra for low-scoring ninth graders raised algebra scores, graduation, and college enrollment: support alongside the gateway course works",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Intensive Math Instruction and Educational Attainment",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Cortes",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 20,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_50_1_108.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dee TS, Huffaker E (2026). Accelerating Opportunity: The Effects of Instructionally Supported Detracking. American Educational Research Journal 63(2):307-350.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00028312251408539",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Random-assignment study: placing below-grade-level ninth graders in Algebra I with teacher training raised grade 11 math achievement (up to 0.2 SD), attendance and retention, without harming peers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Accelerating Opportunity: The Effects of Instructionally Supported Detracking",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Dee",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00028312251408539.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Huffaker E, Novicoff S, Dee TS (2025). Ahead of the Game? Course-Taking Patterns Under a Math Pathways Reform. Educational Researcher 54(2):91-102.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189x241309642",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "San Francisco's delay of Algebra I to ninth grade for all students cut AP math participation 15 percent initially and left large ethnoracial gaps in advanced math unchanged",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Ahead of the Game? Course-Taking Patterns Under a Math Pathways Reform",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Huffaker",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189x241309642.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Card D, Giuliano L (2016). Can Tracking Raise the Test Scores of High-Ability Minority Students? American Economic Review 106(10):2783-2816.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aer.20150484",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Separate high-achiever classrooms filled by objective test rank raised Black and Hispanic participants' scores by 0.5 SD with no harm to non-participants",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Can Tracking Raise the Test Scores of High-Ability Minority Students?",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "American Economic Review",
      "first_author": "Card",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 111,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aer_20150484.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of eighth graders completing Algebra I or higher with a passing end-of-course score, by race, ethnicity, income, English learner and disability status; share of students meeting the placement criterion who are placed; Algebra I repeat rate; share of graduates completing a course beyond Algebra II and calculus or statistics; placement appeals and overrides by school.",
   "standard": "Math placement shall use published objective criteria from multiple measures, place every student who meets them in the accelerated course with parent opt-out, provide a supported path (double period, tutoring, or summer bridge) for students near the cutoff, and never bar a readiness-qualified student from Algebra I in eighth grade.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall publish, by March 1 each year, the objective criteria used to place students in accelerated mathematics in grades 6 through 9, which shall rely on at least two measures of prior achievement, including the most recent state assessment, and shall not rely on teacher recommendation alone. Every student who meets the criteria shall be placed in the accelerated course for the following year unless a parent or guardian opts out in writing after written notice of eligibility. The district shall offer Algebra I in grade 8 at every middle school and shall provide a supported placement, such as a double period, scheduled tutoring, or summer bridge, for students within one standard error of the cutoff and for any student placed in Algebra I below grade level. Students shall be reassessed for placement at least once each school year, and no placement decision made in grade 6 shall be used to limit course access in later grades. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 15 each year: placement rates by school and student group, the share of eighth graders completing Algebra I with a passing end-of-course score, Algebra I repeat rates, and the share of graduates completing calculus or statistics, disaggregated by race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status.",
   "red_flags": [
    "Algebra I not offered before grade 9",
    "placement based on teacher recommendation alone",
    "placement criteria not published or not applied uniformly across schools",
    "tracks or ability groups assigned in elementary grades with no annual reassessment",
    "acceleration of all students into Algebra I with no support course",
    "no reporting of math course completion by student group"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "algebra",
     "math placement",
     "acceleration",
     "tracking",
     "ability grouping",
     "detracking",
     "compacted math",
     "honors math"
    ],
    "regex": "algebra|math(ematics)? (placement|pathway|sequence|acceleration)|ability group|tracking|detrack|compact(ed)? math|honors math|pre-?calculus|calculus"
   },
   "law_notes": "California Math Placement Act of 2015 (SB 359) requires districts to adopt a fair, objective and transparent math placement policy for students entering grade 9 with multiple objective measures and annual reporting. Texas SB 2124 (2023) requires automatic enrollment in advanced sixth grade math of students in the top 40 percent on fifth grade STAAR math, with parent opt-out, to prepare them for Algebra I in grade 8. North Carolina G.S. 115C-81.36 requires that students scoring at the highest level on the math end-of-grade test be placed in the advanced course, and that such seventh graders be placed in a high school math course in grade 8; removal requires written parent consent. Illinois Accelerated Placement Act requires accelerated placement policies and automatic enrollment of high school students who exceed state standards.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through the chief academic officer and the director of secondary mathematics",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The chief academic officer drafts the objective placement criteria for grades 6 through 9, using at least two prior-achievement measures including the most recent state assessment and no teacher recommendation alone, and submits them to the Superintendent within 60 days.",
     "The director of secondary mathematics audits every middle school's current math course offerings and reports to the Superintendent within 30 days which schools do not yet offer Algebra I in grade 8.",
     "The director of research and assessment pulls the prior year's placement, Algebra I completion, end-of-course passing, and repeat data by school and student group to establish the baseline for the October 15 report.",
     "The Superintendent sends each middle school principal a written directive within 90 days to identify, from current data, every student who meets the draft criteria and every student within one standard error of the cutoff."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent publishes the final objective placement criteria by March 1 and the communications office issues written eligibility notices with a written opt-out form to every parent or guardian of a student who meets them.",
     "Each middle school principal schedules Algebra I in grade 8 and a supported placement, such as a double period, scheduled tutoring, or summer bridge, for every student within one standard error of the cutoff and every student placed in Algebra I below grade level.",
     "The director of secondary mathematics delivers training to every teacher assigned to a supported Algebra I section before the course begins.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first report to the Board by October 15 with placement rates, Algebra I completion and passing rates, repeat rates, and calculus or statistics completion disaggregated by race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "Each school reassesses every student for placement at least once each school year, and the director of research and assessment verifies that no grade 6 placement decision limits course access in later grades.",
     "The Superintendent reports placement appeals and overrides by school each year alongside the October 15 report, and the Board reviews any school where the share of criterion-meeting students who are placed falls below the district average."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of students meeting the published placement criterion who are placed in the accelerated course, and share of eighth graders completing Algebra I with a passing end-of-course score, each disaggregated by race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, plus the Algebra I repeat rate.",
    "baseline": "The prior year's placement rates, eighth grade Algebra I completion and passing rates, and Algebra I repeat rate by school and student group, as pulled by the director of research and assessment in the first 90 days and reported in the first October 15 report.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, every student who meets the published criterion is placed unless a parent opts out in writing, and Algebra I is offered in grade 8 at every middle school; within 3 years, the share of eighth graders completing Algebra I with a passing end-of-course score rises for every student group with no increase in the Algebra I repeat rate for any group, and the gap in criterion-meeting placement rates between student groups closes to zero.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric placement or pass-rate target. It supports the direction: an objective placement rule removed race and income from placement decisions in Wake County, and Algebra I with teacher training for below-grade-level ninth graders raised grade 11 math achievement by up to 0.2 SD, while early algebra without support lowered pass rates and later course completion.",
    "report": "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 15 each year, with every measure disaggregated by race, ethnicity, income, English learner status, and disability status, and with placement appeals and overrides listed by school."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "objective-published-criteria",
     "text": "The policy requires math placement to use published objective criteria drawn from multiple measures.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "place-all-who-qualify",
     "text": "The policy places every student who meets the placement criteria in the accelerated math course.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "parent-opt-out",
     "text": "The policy allows parents to opt their student out of accelerated math placement.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "supported-path-near-cutoff",
     "text": "The policy provides a supported path, such as a double period, tutoring, or summer bridge, for students near the cutoff.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-bar-eighth-grade-algebra",
     "text": "The policy never bars a readiness-qualified student from taking Algebra I in eighth grade.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "mtss-rti",
   "domain": "Multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS / RtI)",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "discipline"
   ],
   "finding": "The components of a tiered system work when they are done well: K-3 supplemental reading interventions average about 0.4 SD across dozens of rigorous studies, early K-2 screeners predict later reading, and a randomized trial shows that starting intervention immediately after screening beats waiting a semester (d = 0.36). The one large evaluation of RtI as schools actually ran it (Balu et al. 2015, 146 schools in 13 states) found that first graders just below the cutoff who were pulled into Tier 2 or 3 scored lower in spring than peers just above it, with no effect in grades 2 and 3.",
   "effect": "Tier 2 and intensive K-3 reading interventions ES about 0.3 to 0.5; immediate versus delayed intervention d = 0.36; national RtI evaluation: grade 1 negative (about -0.1 SD), grades 2-3 null",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Balu et al. (2015) is the only large-scale evaluation of RtI practice and its result was null to negative; Gersten, Jayanthi and Dimino (2017) and Fuchs and Fuchs (2017) argue the design captured students near the cutoff who were often pulled from core instruction into undifferentiated groups, so it tests weak implementation rather than the model, but the finding stands as a warning that labels and tiers do not help by themselves. Burns et al. (2005) reported very large effects for RtI models, but from a small set of mostly non-experimental field studies. Most district MTSS policies describe structures (teams, tiers, forms) and not instructional content, intensity or dosage, which is where the measurable effects live. Universal screening generates false positives at the K-1 level and its accuracy depends on the measure and administration quality.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Balu R, Zhu P, Doolittle F, Schiller E, Jenkins J, Gersten R (2015). Evaluation of Response to Intervention Practices for Elementary School Reading. NCEE 2016-4000. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20164000/",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "146 experienced RtI schools in 13 states: first graders just below the screening cutoff who received Tier 2 or 3 intervention scored lower in spring reading than those just above; no significant effects in grades 2 and 3",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gersten R, Jayanthi M, Dimino J (2017). Too much, too soon? Unanswered questions from national Response to Intervention evaluation. Exceptional Children 83(3):244-254.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0014402917692847",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917692847",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "reading of the national evaluation: it measured RtI as implemented, often with students removed from core instruction for loosely specified intervention; efficacy trials of specific interventions remain positive",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Too Much, Too Soon? Unanswered Questions From National Response to Intervention Evaluation",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Exceptional Children",
      "first_author": "Gersten",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 50,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0014402917692847.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fuchs D, Fuchs LS (2017). Critique of the national evaluation of Response to Intervention: A case for simpler frameworks. Exceptional Children 83(3):255-268.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0014402917693580",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917693580",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "the complexity of three-tier frameworks as practiced undermines fidelity; argues for simpler, more intensive designs",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Critique of the National Evaluation of Response to Intervention: A Case for Simpler Frameworks",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Exceptional Children",
      "first_author": "Fuchs",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 161,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0014402917693580.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gersten R, Haymond K, Newman-Gonchar R, Dimino J, Jayanthi M (2020). Meta-analysis of the impact of reading interventions for students in the primary grades. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 13(2):401-427.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2019.1689591",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2019.1689591",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "33 WWC-standard studies 2002-2017: reading interventions for at-risk grade 1-3 students have a mean effect of 0.39 SD (95% CI 0.32 to 0.46)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Reading Interventions for Students in the Primary Grades",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Gersten",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 183,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2019_1689591.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wanzek J, Vaughn S, Scammacca N, Gatlin B, Walker MA, Capin P (2016). Meta-analyses of the effects of Tier 2 type reading interventions in grades K-3. Educational Psychology Review 28(3):551-576.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10648-015-9321-7",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9321-7",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Tier 2 type K-3 reading interventions (small group, 15 to 99 sessions) produce moderate positive effects on foundational reading skills and smaller effects on comprehension",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Meta-Analyses of the Effects of Tier 2 Type Reading Interventions in Grades K-3",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Wanzek",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 208,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wanzek J, Stevens EA, Williams KJ, Scammacca N, Vaughn S, Sargent K (2018). Current evidence on the effects of intensive early reading interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities 51(6):612-624.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0022219418775110",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775110",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "25 studies of intensive (Tier 3 type) K-3 interventions: weighted mean ES 0.39, 0.28 adjusted for publication bias",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Current Evidence on the Effects of Intensive Early Reading Interventions",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Learning Disabilities",
      "first_author": "Wanzek",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 189,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0022219418775110.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Al Otaiba S, Connor CM, Folsom JS, Wanzek J, Greulich L, Schatschneider C, Wagner RK (2014). To wait in Tier 1 or intervene immediately: A randomized experiment examining first-grade response to intervention in reading. Exceptional Children 81(1):11-27.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0014402914532234",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914532234",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "34 first-grade classrooms, 522 students: providing Tier 2 or 3 immediately on screening results beat the typical wait-and-see RtI by d = 0.36, with effects accumulating over the year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "To Wait in Tier 1 or Intervene Immediately",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Exceptional Children",
      "first_author": "Al Otaiba",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 129,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0014402914532234.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "January SA, Klingbeil DA (2020). Universal screening in grades K-2: A systematic review and meta-analysis of early reading curriculum-based measures. Journal of School Psychology 82:103-122.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jsp.2020.08.007",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.08.007",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "48 studies, 47,168 students: early reading screeners correlate 0.34 to 0.75 with later reading, so screening can identify risk but the measure chosen matters",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Universal screening in grades K-2: A systematic review and meta-analysis of early reading curriculum-based measures",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of School Psychology",
      "first_author": "January",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 38,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jenkins JR, Hudson RF, Johnson ES (2007). Screening for at-risk readers in a Response to Intervention framework. School Psychology Review 36(4):582-600.",
     "doi": "10.1080/02796015.2007.12087919",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2007.12087919",
     "year": 2007,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "classification accuracy (sensitivity, specificity) is the right standard for choosing a screener; single short measures in kindergarten over-identify",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Screening for At-Risk Readers in a Response to Intervention Framework",
      "year": 2007,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Jenkins",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 300,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_02796015_2007_12087919.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gersten R, Compton D, Connor CM, Dimino J, Santoro L, Linan-Thompson S, Tilly WD (2009). Assisting Students Struggling with Reading: Response to Intervention and Multi-Tier Intervention in the Primary Grades. IES Practice Guide NCEE 2009-4045. What Works Clearinghouse.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/3",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "the five practice-guide recommendations the model clause operationalizes: universal screening, differentiated Tier 1, small-group Tier 2 three to five times a week, progress monitoring at least monthly, intensive Tier 3",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Burns MK, Appleton JJ, Stehouwer JD (2005). Meta-analytic review of responsiveness-to-intervention research: Examining field-based and research-implemented models. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment 23(4):381-394.",
     "doi": "10.1177/073428290502300406",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/073428290502300406",
     "year": 2005,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "early, mostly non-experimental evidence: large effects for RtI models and lower special education placement rates (about 1.7 percent of students); treat as upper bound",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Meta-Analytic Review of Responsiveness-To- Intervention Research: Examining Field-Based and Research-Implemented Models",
      "year": 2005,
      "journal": "Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment",
      "first_author": "Burns",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 228,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_073428290502300406.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of K-3 students screened each window and share identified at risk (screener vendor reports); share of at-risk students with intervention logged within 15 school days; progress-monitoring frequency per Tier 2 and Tier 3 student (every two weeks or better); share of Tier 2 students who exit to Tier 1 within a semester; special education referral and identification rates by race and school.",
   "standard": "The policy shall name the screener, the screening windows, the timeline from flag to intervention, the minimum dosage of Tier 2 and Tier 3 instruction delivered in addition to core instruction, the progress-monitoring interval and the decision rule for moving students between tiers.",
   "model_clause": "The District shall operate a multi-tiered system of support in reading, mathematics and behavior in every school, using [name of screener], with published classification accuracy, as the universal screener for each area. The Superintendent shall screen every student in kindergarten through grade 8 within the first 30 school days and in winter and spring windows published before each year. An at-risk student shall begin Tier 2 intervention, logged by the school, within 15 school days of screening. Tier 2 shall provide at least three 30-minute small-group sessions per week, and Tier 3 at least five 30-minute sessions per week in groups of three or fewer, each added to, never replacing, core instruction. Tier 2 and Tier 3 students shall be progress-monitored at least every two weeks. The student support team shall review each student's data at least every six weeks and record its decision: a student meeting the screener's grade-level benchmark exits to the lower tier; one on track to meet it by the next window continues; one below it intensifies. A student not responding after two cycles shall be referred for special education evaluation; no school shall require tiered intervention before a parent-requested evaluation proceeds. The Director of Student Services shall report to the Board each December and June screening participation each window, share identified at risk, share of at-risk students with intervention logged within 15 school days, progress-monitoring frequency per Tier 2 and 3 student, share of Tier 2 students exiting to Tier 1 within a semester, and special education referral and identification rates by school and race.",
   "red_flags": [
    "MTSS described only as a team or meeting structure with no dosage, frequency or timeline",
    "intervention delivered during core reading or mathematics instruction",
    "progress monitoring 'as needed' or quarterly",
    "a required number of weeks in RtI before a special education referral may be made",
    "screening only for students referred by teachers",
    "no decision rule or exit criterion for tiers"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "MTSS",
     "RtI",
     "response to intervention",
     "multi-tiered",
     "tiered support",
     "Tier 2",
     "Tier 3",
     "progress monitoring",
     "universal screening",
     "student support team",
     "intervention"
    ],
    "regex": "MTSS|RtI|response to intervention|multi[- ]tier|tier(ed)? (2|3|two|three|support|intervention)|progress monitor|universal screen|student (support|success|assistance) team"
   },
   "law_notes": "IDEA 2004 and 34 CFR 300.307 permit states to allow a response-to-intervention process for identifying specific learning disabilities and forbid using it to delay or deny an evaluation (OSEP memo 11-07, 2011). ESSA references MTSS as an allowable use of Title funds. Most states require K-3 reading screening by statute; several (e.g. Texas, Mississippi, Ohio) specify screening windows and parent notification timelines that a district policy must meet.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "model_clause_previous": "The District shall operate a multi-tiered system of support in reading, mathematics and behavior in every school. The Superintendent shall designate a universal screener with published classification accuracy for each area and shall administer it to every student in kindergarten through grade 8 within the first 30 school days of the year and again in the winter and spring windows. Any student identified as at risk shall begin Tier 2 intervention within 15 school days of the screening date. Tier 2 shall consist of at least three 30-minute small-group sessions per week, and Tier 3 of at least five sessions per week in groups of three or fewer, each delivered in addition to, and not in place of, core instruction. Students in Tier 2 or Tier 3 shall be progress-monitored at least every two weeks, and the school's student support team shall review each student's data at least every six weeks and record the decision to continue, intensify or exit. A student who has not responded after two intervention cycles shall be referred for a special education evaluation, and no school shall require a student to pass through tiers before a parent-requested evaluation proceeds. The Director of Student Services shall report to the Board each December and each June the screening participation rate, the share of at-risk students who began intervention within 15 days, the mean progress-monitoring interval, the share of students exiting Tier 2, and special education referral and identification rates by school and race.",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Student Services, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent selects and names the universal screener for reading, mathematics and behavior with published classification accuracy and publishes the fall, winter and spring screening windows before the school year opens.",
     "The Director of Student Services issues a written procedure to every principal setting the 15 school day flag-to-intervention timeline, the Tier 2 minimum of three 30-minute sessions per week, the Tier 3 minimum of five 30-minute sessions per week in groups of three or fewer, and the rule that both tiers add to rather than replace core instruction.",
     "Each principal completes screening of every student in kindergarten through grade 8 within the first 30 school days and submits the participation count and the share identified at risk to the Director of Student Services.",
     "The Director of Student Services configures the student information system to log the intervention start date for each at-risk student so the 15 school day interval can be computed, and the special education director confirms in writing that no school requires tiered intervention before a parent-requested evaluation proceeds, consistent with OSEP memo 11-07.",
     "Each principal forms a student support team, names its chair, and schedules data review meetings at least every six weeks for the full year."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Student Services delivers the first December report to the Board covering fall screening participation, share identified at risk, share of at-risk students with intervention logged within 15 school days, and progress-monitoring frequency per Tier 2 and Tier 3 student.",
     "Each student support team applies the written decision rule at every six-week review, records exit, continue or intensify for each Tier 2 and Tier 3 student, and refers any student not responding after two cycles for special education evaluation.",
     "The Director of Student Services delivers the June report to the Board adding share of Tier 2 students exiting to Tier 1 within a semester and special education referral and identification rates by school and race, and flags any school where first graders placed in Tier 2 or Tier 3 are not outpacing comparable students who stayed in Tier 1.",
     "The Superintendent verifies that the district's screening windows and parent notification timelines meet the state statute where the state specifies them."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Student Services reports to the Board each December and June on all indicators in the clause, broken out by school and race.",
     "The Superintendent audits a sample of Tier 2 and Tier 3 schedules each year to confirm dosage and that intervention time is added to, not substituted for, core instruction.",
     "The student support team at each school reviews its decision records each semester and corrects any school where progress monitoring lapses below every two weeks."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of at-risk students with Tier 2 or Tier 3 intervention logged within 15 school days of screening, share of Tier 2 students exiting to Tier 1 within a semester, screening participation each window, progress-monitoring frequency, and special education referral and identification rates by school and race.",
    "baseline": "Fall of the first year of operation: screening participation, share identified at risk, share with intervention logged within 15 school days, and current special education referral and identification rates by school and race, as submitted by each principal and compiled by the Director of Student Services.",
    "target": "By the June report of year one, every school screens all K-8 students within the first 30 school days of each window, every at-risk student has intervention logged within 15 school days, every Tier 2 and Tier 3 student is progress-monitored at least every two weeks, and the share of Tier 2 students exiting to Tier 1 within a semester rises each year over the first 3 years with no school showing referral or identification rates by race that diverge from its share of enrollment without a documented review.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives effect sizes for well-run components (Tier 2 and intensive K-3 reading interventions about 0.3 to 0.5 SD; immediate versus delayed intervention d = 0.36) and a cautionary national result (grade 1 about -0.1 SD, grades 2-3 null in Balu et al. 2015), but no numeric benchmark for the exit rate, the timeliness rate or the referral rates, so the target is directional on those indicators and absolute on the clause's own timelines and dosage.",
    "report": "Director of Student Services reports to the Board each December and June, by school and race, with the June report comparing spring outcomes of students placed in Tier 2 or Tier 3 against students just above the cutoff to check for the negative grade 1 pattern found in the national evaluation."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "tier-dosage",
     "text": "The policy states the minimum dosage of Tier 2 and Tier 3 instruction delivered in addition to core instruction.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "screener-named",
     "text": "The policy names the screener used to identify students for intervention.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "screening-windows",
     "text": "The policy states the screening windows during the school year.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "flag-to-intervention-timeline",
     "text": "The policy states the timeline from a student being flagged by screening to the start of intervention.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "progress-monitoring-interval",
     "text": "The policy states the interval at which progress monitoring occurs for students in intervention.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "tier-decision-rule",
     "text": "The policy states the decision rule for moving students between tiers.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "special-education-inclusion",
   "domain": "Special education placement and inclusion",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "postsecondary",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Receiving special education services causally raises achievement and attainment for students with disabilities (Texas: removing services lowered high school completion and college enrollment; NYC and Texas: entering special education raised test scores by roughly 0.1 SD), and large correlational and meta-analytic literatures find that students with disabilities who spend most of the day in general education classrooms do better academically with no detectable cost to their peers (d = 0.35 for students with general learning difficulties; peers d = 0.12 to null). Co-teaching shows a medium positive effect in a 2021 meta-analysis. The causal evidence on placement itself, as opposed to services, is thin and contested, so the best-supported policy is a documented, data-driven least restrictive environment decision for each student rather than a placement quota in either direction.",
   "effect": "Special education services: about +0.1 SD achievement; service removal lowered high school completion and college entry. Inclusive placement: d = 0.35 cognitive outcomes for students with learning difficulties (meta-analysis of mostly non-randomized studies); peers d = 0.12 (small positive) to null. Co-teaching: medium positive effect on achievement for students with disabilities.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Gilmour (2018) and Gilmour, Fuchs and Wehby (2018) show that the inclusion-achievement correlation is confounded by selection: students with stronger skills and fewer behavior challenges are placed in general education, and the reading gap for students with disabilities is about 1.2 SD regardless of setting. Hanushek, Kain and Rivkin (2002) found special education raised math for students with learning and emotional disabilities but found no difference between general and special classroom settings. Krämer, Möller and Zimmermann (2021) report no psychosocial benefit of inclusion (d = 0.00) and note selection effects in the underlying studies. Correlational work finds higher teacher turnover and more management time in classes with larger shares of students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. Co-teaching effects depend on implementation; much co-teaching in practice is one-teach, one-assist with little specialized instruction. Inclusion done by moving students without moving services or training is not supported by any of this evidence.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Hehir, T., Grindal, T., Freeman, B., Lamoreau, R., Borquaye, Y., & Burke, S. (2016). A Summary of the Evidence on Inclusive Education. Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates, for Instituto Alana.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://alana.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/A_Summary_of_the_evidence_on_inclusive_education.pdf",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Review of 280 studies in 25 countries: students with disabilities in inclusive settings show higher academic and social outcomes and peers without disabilities are not harmed",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cole, S. M., Murphy, H. R., Frisby, M. B., Grossi, T. A., & Bolte, H. R. (2020). The Relationship of Special Education Placement and Student Academic Outcomes. The Journal of Special Education 54(4):217-227.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0022466920925033",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920925033",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Indiana statewide data: students with disabilities placed in general education 80 percent or more of the day scored higher on state ELA and math tests than similar students with less inclusive placements",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Relationship of Special Education Placement and Student Academic Outcomes",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "The Journal of Special Education",
      "first_author": "Cole",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 44,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0022466920925033.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gilmour, A. F. (2018). Has Inclusion Gone Too Far? Weighing Its Effects on Students With Disabilities, Their Peers, and Teachers. Education Next 18(4).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.educationnext.org/has-inclusion-gone-too-far-weighing-effects-students-with-disabilities-peers-teachers/",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Argues the evidence for inclusive placement is correlational and selection-confounded, with preliminary evidence of costs to peers and teachers; placement should follow individual need, not a time-in-general-education target",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gilmour, A. F., Fuchs, D., & Wehby, J. H. (2019). Are Students With Disabilities Accessing the Curriculum? A Meta-Analysis of the Reading Achievement Gap Between Students With and Without Disabilities. Exceptional Children 85(3):329-346.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0014402918795830",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918795830",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Students with disabilities read about 1.17 SD (more than three grade levels) below peers; the gap persists across settings, so placement alone does not close it",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Are Students With Disabilities Accessing the Curriculum? A Meta-Analysis of the Reading Achievement Gap Between Students With and Without Disabilities",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Exceptional Children",
      "first_author": "Gilmour",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 163,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0014402918795830.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ballis, B., & Heath, K. (2021). The Long-Run Impacts of Special Education. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 13(4):72-111.",
     "doi": "10.1257/pol.20190603",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20190603",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Texas's 8.5 percent special education enrollment cap removed services from students; those removed were less likely to complete high school and enroll in college",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Long-Run Impacts of Special Education",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Ballis",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 47,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_pol_20190603.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schwartz, A. E., Hopkins, B. G., & Stiefel, L. (2021). The Effects of Special Education on the Academic Performance of Students with Learning Disabilities. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 40(2):480-520.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22282",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22282",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "New York City: entering special education improved achievement of students with learning disabilities, with larger effects for those served in general education settings than in self-contained classes",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Special Education on the Academic Performance of Students with Learning Disabilities",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Schwartz",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 99,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22282.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hurwitz, S., Perry, B., Cohen, E. D., & Skiba, R. (2020). Special Education and Individualized Academic Growth: A Longitudinal Assessment of Outcomes for Students With Disabilities. American Educational Research Journal 57(2):576-611.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831219857054",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219857054",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Indiana: students receiving special education showed greater academic growth than matched students with similar prior achievement who did not, with variation by disability category",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Special Education and Individualized Academic Growth: A Longitudinal Assessment of Outcomes for Students With Disabilities",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Hurwitz",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 75,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831219857054.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hanushek, E. A., Kain, J. F., & Rivkin, S. G. (2002). Inferring Program Effects for Special Populations: Does Special Education Raise Achievement for Students with Disabilities? Review of Economics and Statistics 84(4):584-599.",
     "doi": "10.1162/003465302760556431",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/003465302760556431",
     "year": 2002,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Texas: special education raised math achievement of students with learning and emotional disabilities by about 0.1 SD; no evidence that classroom setting mattered and no harm to peers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Inferring Program Effects for Special Populations: Does Special Education Raise Achievement for Students with Disabilities?",
      "year": 2002,
      "journal": "Review of Economics and Statistics",
      "first_author": "Hanushek",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 262,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_003465302760556431.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Krämer, S., Möller, J., & Zimmermann, F. (2021). Inclusive Education of Students With General Learning Difficulties: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research 91(3):432-478.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654321998072",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654321998072",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "40 studies, 11,987 students: inclusive versus segregated settings d = 0.35 on cognitive outcomes for students with general learning difficulties, d = 0.00 psychosocial; peers not different; selection effects acknowledged",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Inclusive Education of Students With General Learning Difficulties: A Meta-Analysis",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Krämer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 122,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654321998072.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Szumski, G., Smogorzewska, J., & Karwowski, M. (2017). Academic achievement of students without special educational needs in inclusive classrooms: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review 21:33-54.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.edurev.2017.02.004",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.02.004",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "47 studies, over 4.8 million students: peers without disabilities in inclusive classrooms show a small positive effect (d = 0.12), no harm",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Academic achievement of students without special educational needs in inclusive classrooms: A meta-analysis",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Educational Research Review",
      "first_author": "Szumski",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 214,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "King-Sears, M. E., Stefanidis, A., Berkeley, S., & Strogilos, V. (2021). Does co-teaching improve academic achievement for students with disabilities? A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review 34:100405.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100405",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100405",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Co-teaching produced a medium positive effect on achievement of students with disabilities compared with other service models, with few randomized studies in the base",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does co-teaching improve academic achievement for students with disabilities? A meta-analysis",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Educational Research Review",
      "first_author": "King-Sears",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 59,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Solis, M., Vaughn, S., Swanson, E., & McCulley, L. (2012). Collaborative models of instruction: The empirical foundations of inclusion and co-teaching. Psychology in the Schools 49(5):498-510.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pits.21606",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21606",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Synthesis of co-teaching and inclusion research: outcome studies are few and co-teaching in practice is dominated by one-teach, one-assist with limited specialized instruction",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Collaborative models of instruction: The empirical foundations of inclusion and co‐teaching",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Psychology in the Schools",
      "first_author": "Solis",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 264,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pits_21606.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Theobald, R. J., Goldhaber, D. D., Gratz, T. M., & Holden, K. L. (2019). Career and Technical Education, Inclusion, and Postsecondary Outcomes for Students With Learning Disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities 52(2):109-119.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0022219418775121",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775121",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Washington State: students with learning disabilities who spent more time in general education had higher graduation, employment and postsecondary enrollment, controlling for prior achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Career and Technical Education, Inclusion, and Postsecondary Outcomes for Students With Learning Disabilities",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Learning Disabilities",
      "first_author": "Theobald",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 61,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0022219418775121.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gilmour, A. F., & Henry, G. T. (2018). A Comparison of Teacher Quality in Math for Late Elementary and Middle School Students With and Without Disabilities. The Elementary School Journal 118(3):426-451.",
     "doi": "10.1086/696140",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1086/696140",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "North Carolina: students with disabilities were assigned to less effective math teachers than peers, so placement policy must address who teaches the students, not only where",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Comparison of Teacher Quality in Math for Late Elementary and Middle School Students With and Without Disabilities",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "The Elementary School Journal",
      "first_author": "Gilmour",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 20,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_696140.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of students with IEPs in general education 80 percent or more of the day, 40 to 79 percent, and under 40 percent (IDEA Section 618 educational environment data), disaggregated by disability category, race and school; achievement and growth of students with disabilities on state tests versus peers; graduation rate and dropout rate of students with disabilities; suspension rates of students with disabilities; share of IEPs documenting consideration of supplementary aids and services before a more restrictive placement; co-taught sections staffed by a certified special educator for the full period.",
   "standard": "Every placement decision shall start from the general education classroom with supplementary aids and services, document in the IEP the specific reasons a more restrictive setting is required, and be reviewed against the student's academic and behavioral data at least annually; the district shall report placement and outcome data for students with disabilities by school each year.",
   "model_clause": "Each IEP team shall first consider placement in the general education classroom with supplementary aids, services and specially designed instruction, and shall document in the IEP the specific supports tried or considered and the data showing why a student cannot be educated satisfactorily in that setting before recommending any more restrictive placement. No student shall be placed in a separate class or school on the basis of disability category, the availability of staff, or administrative convenience. Each co-taught section shall be staffed by a general educator and a certified special educator for the full instructional period, with weekly common planning time scheduled by the principal. The Director of Special Education shall review every placement in a setting of less than 40 percent general education at least annually against the student's progress data and shall report to the Board by November 1 of each year, by school, disability category, race and English learner status: educational environment percentages, state test achievement and growth, graduation and dropout rates, suspension rates, and the number of placement reviews that resulted in a less restrictive placement. The Superintendent shall provide at least 12 hours of training per year in specially designed instruction and co-teaching to every teacher assigned to a co-taught section.",
   "red_flags": [
    "placement determined by program or disability label rather than individual IEP",
    "separate 'resource' or 'self-contained' track described as the default for a category",
    "no mention of supplementary aids and services or least restrictive environment",
    "co-teaching defined as paraprofessional support",
    "inclusion stated as a target percentage without a data review process",
    "placement contingent on 'space available' or staffing",
    "no annual report of special education outcomes to the board"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "special education",
     "students with disabilities",
     "IEP",
     "least restrictive environment",
     "LRE",
     "inclusion",
     "inclusive",
     "co-teaching",
     "co-taught",
     "self-contained",
     "resource room",
     "Section 504",
     "IDEA",
     "exceptional children"
    ],
    "regex": "special education|students? with disabilit|\\bIEPs?\\b|least restrictive|\\bLRE\\b|inclusi(on|ve)|co[- ]?t(each|aught)|self[- ]contained|resource room|section 504|\\bIDEA\\b|exceptional (children|students)"
   },
   "law_notes": "IDEA, 20 U.S.C. 1412(a)(5), requires education in the least restrictive environment to the maximum extent appropriate, with removal from general education only when education there cannot be achieved satisfactorily with supplementary aids and services; 34 CFR 300.114 to 300.120 govern placement and a continuum of alternative placements. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the ADA bar exclusion on the basis of disability. States report educational environment data under IDEA Section 618 and set targets in State Performance Plan Indicator 5. Texas's former 8.5 percent special education enrollment benchmark was found to violate IDEA by the U.S. Department of Education in 2018.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Special Education, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Special Education pulls the district's current IDEA Section 618 educational environment data and lists every student placed in general education less than 40 percent of the day, by school, disability category, race and English learner status, within 30 days.",
     "The Director of Special Education revises the IEP placement template so that every IEP records the supplementary aids and services tried or considered and the data supporting any setting more restrictive than general education, and issues it to all IEP teams within 60 days.",
     "Each principal submits a roster of co-taught sections showing the assigned general educator and certified special educator and the scheduled weekly common planning block within 60 days.",
     "The Superintendent sets the annual 12-hour training calendar in specially designed instruction and co-teaching for every teacher assigned to a co-taught section and schedules the first session within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Special Education audits a sample of current IEPs at each school for documented consideration of supplementary aids and services before a more restrictive placement and reports the share compliant to the Superintendent within 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Special Education completes an annual review of every placement under 40 percent general education against the student's progress data and records how many reviews resulted in a less restrictive placement.",
     "Each principal confirms that every co-taught section is staffed by a certified special educator for the full instructional period and reports any section that is not to the Director of Special Education each semester.",
     "The Superintendent verifies that every teacher assigned to a co-taught section completed at least 12 hours of specially designed instruction and co-teaching training during the year.",
     "The Director of Special Education delivers the first report to the Board by November 1 with educational environment percentages, state test achievement and growth, graduation and dropout rates, suspension rates and the count of placement reviews that led to a less restrictive placement, by school, disability category, race and English learner status."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Special Education reviews every under-40-percent placement at least annually and reports to the Board by November 1 each year.",
     "The Director of Special Education audits a sample of new and amended IEPs each year for documented consideration of supplementary aids and services and refers any school below full compliance for corrective action.",
     "The Superintendent continues the 12-hour annual training requirement and the principals' weekly common planning schedule for every co-taught section."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of students with IEPs in general education 80 percent or more of the day, 40 to 79 percent, and under 40 percent, disaggregated by school, disability category, race and English learner status; achievement and growth of students with disabilities on state tests versus peers; graduation, dropout and suspension rates of students with disabilities; share of IEPs documenting consideration of supplementary aids and services before a more restrictive placement; share of co-taught sections staffed by a certified special educator for the full period.",
    "baseline": "The most recent IDEA Section 618 educational environment data, state test results, graduation, dropout and suspension rates for students with disabilities, and the first-90-day IEP documentation audit and co-teaching staffing roster.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, every reviewed IEP recommending a setting below 80 percent general education documents the supplementary aids and services considered and the supporting data, every co-taught section is staffed by a certified special educator for the full period, and every assigned teacher completes 12 hours of training; within 3 years, the share of students with IEPs in general education 80 percent or more of the day rises and the achievement gap, dropout rate and suspension rate for students with disabilities fall from baseline, with no decline in peer achievement.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no district-level numeric target for placement shares; the state's State Performance Plan Indicator 5 targets for educational environment are the external reference, and the research effect sizes (about 0.1 SD for services, d = 0.35 for inclusive placement, peers d = 0.12 to null) describe expected direction, not a quota. The entry notes that placement quotas in either direction, such as Texas's former 8.5 percent enrollment benchmark, violate IDEA.",
    "report": "Director of Special Education reports to the Board by November 1 each year, by school, disability category, race and English learner status, with the Board comparing each year's figures to baseline and to the state's Indicator 5 targets."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "start-general-ed-with-aids",
     "text": "The policy requires every placement decision to start from the general education classroom with supplementary aids and services.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "iep-documents-restrictive-reasons",
     "text": "The policy requires the IEP to document the specific reasons a more restrictive setting is required.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-data-review",
     "text": "The policy requires each placement to be reviewed against the student's academic and behavioral data at least annually.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-placement-outcome-report",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to report placement and outcome data for students with disabilities by school each year.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "summer-and-extended-learning-time",
   "domain": "Summer learning and extended learning time",
   "category": "academics-and-access",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "attendance"
   ],
   "finding": "Voluntary summer programs with at least five weeks and three hours of daily academic instruction produce modest gains for students who attend regularly: a meta-analysis of 37 studies finds +0.10 SD in math, a meta-analysis of 41 summer reading interventions finds significant reading gains concentrated among low-income children, and the RAND five-district randomized study found a near-term math benefit after one summer with persistent math and language arts advantages for high attenders after two. Extending the regular school day for literacy in low-performing Florida schools raised reading 0.05 SD in a regression-discontinuity design.",
   "effect": "Summer math programs +0.10 SD (meta-analysis); summer reading interventions significant, larger for low-income children; RAND RCT: math gain after one summer that faded by fall, high attenders ahead in math and language arts through spring of the following year; Florida extra literacy hour +0.05 SD reading",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Intent-to-treat effects are small and fade: in the RAND study the causal benefit of being offered the program dissipated by the next fall, offering a second summer showed no significant causal effect, and three years later high-attender advantages were no longer statistically significant. Attendance is the binding constraint, and the students who attend 20 or more days differ from those who do not, so the high-attender estimates are correlational. Von Hippel and Hamrock (2019) show that much of the canonical summer-learning-loss literature was distorted by test scaling artifacts, and gaps form mainly before school entry, which weakens the rationale for summer programs as a gap-closing tool. Extended-day and extended-year studies are mostly weak in design (Patall et al. 2010), and added time costs staff pay and transportation.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Lynch K, An L, Mancenido Z (2023). The impact of summer programs on student mathematics achievement: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research 93(2):275-315.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00346543221105543",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "37 experimental and quasi-experimental studies: summer programs with math content raised math achievement +0.10 SD, similar in high- and low-poverty settings",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Summer Programs on Student Mathematics Achievement: A Meta-Analysis",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Lynch",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 29,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00346543221105543.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kim JS, Quinn DM (2013). The effects of summer reading on low-income children's literacy achievement from kindergarten to grade 8: A meta-analysis of classroom and home interventions. Review of Educational Research 83(3):386-431.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654313483906",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "41 summer reading interventions: significant gains in reading outcomes, larger for low-income children and for research-based instruction",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Summer Reading on Low-Income Children’s Literacy Achievement From Kindergarten to Grade 8",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Kim",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 214,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654313483906.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Augustine CH, McCombs JS, Pane JF, Schwartz HL, Schweig J, McEachin A, Siler-Evans K (2016). Learning from summer: Effects of voluntary summer learning programs on low-income urban youth. RAND Corporation, RR-1557-WF.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RR1557",
     "url": "https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1557.html",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Five-district randomized trial: modest near-term math benefit after one summer that faded by fall; high attenders gained in math and language arts after two summers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Learning from Summer: Effects of Voluntary Summer Learning Programs on Low-Income Urban Youth",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Augustine",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 53,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RR1557.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "McCombs JS, Augustine CH, Pane JF, Schweig J (2020). Every summer counts: A longitudinal analysis of outcomes from the National Summer Learning Project. RAND Corporation, RR-3201-WF.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RR3201",
     "url": "https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR3201.html",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Three-year follow-up: high-attender benefits shrank and lost significance but remained educationally meaningful against typical grade-level gains; recommends at least five weeks with three hours of daily academics",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Every Summer Counts: A Longitudinal Analysis of Outcomes from the National Summer Learning Project",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 14,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RR3201.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Figlio D, Holden KL, Ozek U (2018). Do students benefit from longer school days? Regression discontinuity evidence from Florida's additional hour of literacy instruction. Economics of Education Review 67:171-183.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.06.003",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Florida's mandated extra hour of literacy in low-performing schools raised reading scores about 0.05 SD in the first year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Do students benefit from longer school days? Regression discontinuity evidence from Florida's additional hour of literacy instruction",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Figlio",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 49,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Patall EA, Cooper H, Allen AB (2010). Extending the school day or school year: A systematic review of research (1985-2009). Review of Educational Research 80(3):401-436.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654310377086",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "15 studies: extending time can help, especially for at-risk students and when the added time is used well, but designs are generally weak",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Extending the School Day or School Year",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Patall",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 198,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654310377086.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kidron Y, Lindsay J (2014). The effects of increased learning time on student academic and nonacademic outcomes: Findings from a meta-analytic review. REL 2014-015. Washington, DC: Regional Educational Laboratory Appalachia, Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/appalachia/pdf/REL_2014015.pdf",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "30 studies meeting WWC standards: increased learning time improved literacy and math when instruction was led by certified teachers and targeted to struggling students",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Atteberry A, McEachin A (2021). School's out: The role of summers in understanding achievement disparities. American Educational Research Journal 58(2):239-282.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831220937285",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "NWEA panel: summer learning loss varies enormously across students, and 52 percent of students lose ground in all five consecutive summers in English language arts",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School’s Out: The Role of Summers in Understanding Achievement Disparities",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Atteberry",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 95,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831220937285.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "von Hippel PT, Hamrock C (2019). Do test score gaps grow before, during, or between the school years? Measurement artifacts and what we can know in spite of them. Sociological Science 6:43-80.",
     "doi": "10.15195/v6.a3",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: scaling and test-form artifacts distorted past summer-loss findings; gaps form mainly before school entry and grow little afterward",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Do Test Score Gaps Grow before, during, or between the School Years? Measurement Artifacts and What We Can Know in Spite of Them",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Sociological Science",
      "first_author": "von Hippel",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 149,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_15195_v6_a3.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fitzpatrick MD, Grissmer D, Hastedt S (2011). What a difference a day makes: Estimating daily learning gains during kindergarten and first grade using a natural experiment. Economics of Education Review 30(2):269-279.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2010.09.004",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Test-date variation shows measurable daily learning gains in early grades, the basis for expecting added instructional days to raise achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "What a difference a day makes: Estimating daily learning gains during kindergarten and first grade using a natural experiment",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Fitzpatrick",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 124,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Summer program offered (yes or no), its weeks and daily academic hours (program plan); enrollment and share of enrollees attending 20 or more days, by subgroup (attendance file); fall-to-spring and spring-to-fall growth on interim assessments for attenders versus matched non-attenders; for extended-day programs, the added minutes and how they are used, with the same growth comparison.",
   "standard": "The district offers a free summer program of at least five weeks with at least three hours of daily academic instruction by certified teachers, prioritized for students below grade level, and reports attendance and achievement growth for attenders each year.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall offer each summer, at no charge, an academic summer program of at least five (5) weeks with at least three (3) hours per day of reading and mathematics instruction taught by certified teachers, together with enrichment, meals and transportation. Enrollment priority shall go to students scoring below grade level on the spring interim assessment, students eligible for free or reduced-price meals, English learners and students with disabilities. The program shall set an attendance goal of at least twenty (20) days per enrolled student and shall contact the family of any student absent two consecutive days. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 15 of each year the number enrolled and the percentage attending twenty or more days by building and subgroup, and the spring-to-fall assessment change for students who attended twenty or more days compared with eligible students who did not enroll. Any extended-day or extended-year program the district adopts shall state its added instructional minutes, the content taught in them and the staff assigned, and shall be included in the same report with its fall-to-spring growth comparison.",
   "red_flags": [
    "summer school limited to credit recovery or retention remediation with fees",
    "summer program under four weeks or under two hours of daily academics",
    "no attendance target or outreach provision",
    "extended day used for homework or supervision with no instructional plan",
    "no reporting of attendance or outcomes"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "summer school",
     "summer learning",
     "summer program",
     "extended day",
     "extended year",
     "extended learning time",
     "after-school"
    ],
    "regex": "summer (school|learning|program|academy|bridge)|extended (school )?(day|year|learning)|expanded learning|after[- ]school program"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal mandate. Title I, Part A and the 21st Century Community Learning Centers program (ESEA Title IV-B) fund summer and extended learning. The ESSER III requirement that districts spend at least 20 percent of funds on learning recovery, including summer programs, expired with the September 30, 2024 obligation deadline. Some states require summer reading intervention for students not proficient by grade 3 under third-grade reading laws (for example Florida, Michigan, Mississippi and Tennessee); check the state code.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum and Instruction (or the Chief Academic Officer), with the Director of Federal Programs as co-owner for Title I and 21st CCLC funding.",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Assistant Superintendent drafts the summer program plan showing at least five weeks, at least three daily hours of reading and mathematics instruction by certified teachers, and the enrichment, meals and transportation to be provided, and brings it to the Board within 60 days.",
     "The Director of Federal Programs identifies Title I, Part A and 21st Century Community Learning Centers funds for the program and confirms the budget with the Chief Financial Officer within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Assessment writes the eligibility rule and builds the priority list from the spring interim assessment, free or reduced-price meal status, English learner status and disability status, and sends each building principal its list within 90 days.",
     "The Human Resources Director posts certified teacher positions for the summer program and the Director of Student Services sets up the attendance file and the two-consecutive-day absence call procedure within 90 days.",
     "The General Counsel checks the state code for any third-grade reading law that requires summer intervention and reports to the Superintendent within 30 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Building principals run enrollment from the priority list, and the Assistant Superintendent confirms before the program opens that each site meets the five-week and three-hour requirements and has certified teachers assigned.",
     "Site coordinators record daily attendance, call the family of any student absent two consecutive days, and track each student against the twenty-day attendance goal.",
     "The Director of Assessment matches attenders of twenty or more days to eligible students who did not enroll and computes the spring-to-fall assessment change for both groups.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first report to the Board by October 15 with enrollment, the percentage attending twenty or more days by building and subgroup, and the growth comparison, plus the added minutes, content and staff for any extended-day program with its fall-to-spring comparison."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 15 each year and the Assistant Superintendent adjusts recruitment, transportation and family contact in buildings where the twenty-day attendance share lags.",
     "The Director of Federal Programs reviews funding sources each year and the Director of Assessment keeps the matched comparison method the same so year-to-year results can be compared."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of enrolled students attending 20 or more days, by building and subgroup, and the spring-to-fall interim assessment change in reading and mathematics for students attending 20 or more days compared with eligible students who did not enroll.",
    "baseline": "The first summer's attendance file and spring-to-fall growth comparison, reported to the Board by October 15 of year one; if the district had no summer program, baseline is zero students served.",
    "target": "Within 1 to 3 years, the share of enrolled students attending 20 or more days rises each year in every building and subgroup, and students attending 20 or more days show a higher spring-to-fall assessment change in reading and mathematics than eligible non-enrollees in each annual October 15 report.",
    "benchmark": "Research gives effect sizes, not an attendance rate: summer math programs show about +0.10 SD and an extra literacy hour showed +0.05 SD in reading, with gains concentrated among regular attenders and low-income children. The entry sets no numeric attendance benchmark beyond the 20-day goal, so the attendance target is directional.",
    "report": "Superintendent's annual report to the Board by October 15, covering enrollment, the percentage attending 20 or more days by building and subgroup, the spring-to-fall growth comparison for attenders versus eligible non-enrollees, and for any extended-day or extended-year program its added minutes, content, staff and fall-to-spring growth comparison."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "free-summer-program-five-weeks-three-hou",
     "text": "The policy provides a free summer program of at least five weeks with at least three hours of daily academic instruction.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "certified-teachers",
     "text": "The policy requires that summer academic instruction be delivered by certified teachers.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "prioritize-below-grade-level",
     "text": "The policy prioritizes summer program enrollment for students performing below grade level.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-attendance-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires annual reporting of summer program attendance.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-achievement-growth-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires annual reporting of achievement growth for students who attended the summer program.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "bullying-prevention",
   "domain": "Bullying prevention",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "climate",
    "mental-health",
    "safety",
    "equity-gaps",
    "attendance"
   ],
   "finding": "Whole-school anti-bullying programs reduce bullying perpetration by about 19 to 20 percent and victimization by about 15 to 16 percent on average across roughly 100 evaluations, with RCT-only estimates smaller (d about 0.15) but still showing mental-health gains. Written policies matter too: students in states whose anti-bullying laws contain the core US Department of Education components had 24 percent lower odds of being bullied and 20 percent lower odds of cyberbullying, and enumerated policies that name sexual orientation and gender identity are associated with lower suicide-attempt risk among LGB youth.",
   "effect": "Perpetration -19 to -20%; victimization -15 to -16% (program meta-analyses); RCT pooled d = -0.15 bullying, -0.21 mental health; compliant state laws: 24% lower odds of bullying, 20% lower odds of cyberbullying.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Program effects shrink with age: a three-level meta-analysis found effects near zero for grade 8 and above, so a program that works in elementary school may do nothing in high school. RCT-only pooled effects are small (d about 0.15). The policy-content findings (Hatzenbuehler 2013, 2015; Meyer 2019; Kull 2016) are cross-sectional associations between state or district policy and student reports, not causal estimates. Most trials are European; KiVa's large cluster-randomized effects in Finland have not been replicated at the same scale in US districts. Self-report prevalence varies several-fold with the definition and recall window used, so year-to-year comparisons require a fixed instrument.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Gaffney H, Ttofi MM, Farrington DP (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of school-bullying prevention programs: An updated meta-analytical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior 45:111-133.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.001",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Programs reduce perpetration about 19 to 20% and victimization about 15 to 16% across about 100 evaluations",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Evaluating the effectiveness of school-bullying prevention programs: An updated meta-analytical review",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Aggression and Violent Behavior",
      "first_author": "Gaffney",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 519,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gaffney H, Farrington DP, Ttofi MM (2019). Examining the effectiveness of school-bullying intervention programs globally: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Bullying Prevention 1(1):14-31.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s42380-019-0007-4",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Program effectiveness holds across countries but varies by program and region; named programs (KiVa, OBPP) carry the strongest evidence",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Examining the Effectiveness of School-Bullying Intervention Programs Globally: a Meta-analysis",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "International Journal of Bullying Prevention",
      "first_author": "Gaffney",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 313,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1007_s42380_019_0007_4.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gaffney H, Ttofi MM, Farrington DP (2021). What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components. Journal of School Psychology 85:37-56.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jsp.2020.12.002",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Whole-school approach, written anti-bullying policy, classroom rules, parent information, informal peer involvement and work with victims are each associated with larger effects",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of School Psychology",
      "first_author": "Gaffney",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 334,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fraguas D, Diaz-Caneja CM, Ayora M, et al. (2021). Assessment of school anti-bullying interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA Pediatrics 175(1):44-55.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.3541",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "69 RCTs, 111,659 students: d = -0.15 for bullying and -0.21 for mental health problems; small but population impact substantial",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Assessment of School Anti-Bullying Interventions",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "JAMA Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Fraguas",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 195,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamapediatrics_2020_3541.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ttofi MM, Farrington DP (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: a systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology 7(1):27-56.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Landmark review: bullying down 20 to 23% and victimization down 17 to 20%; intensity and duration of the program predict effect size",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: a systematic and meta-analytic review",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Journal of Experimental Criminology",
      "first_author": "Ttofi",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1626,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Karna A, Voeten M, Little TD, Poskiparta E, Kaljonen A, Salmivalli C (2011). A large-scale evaluation of the KiVa antibullying program: grades 4-6. Child Development 82(1):311-330.",
     "doi": "10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01557.x",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Cluster RCT of 78 schools and 8,237 students: KiVa reduced self- and peer-reported victimization and self-reported bullying after 9 months",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Large-Scale Evaluation of the KiVa Antibullying Program: Grades 4–6",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Kärnä",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 731,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_j_1467_8624_2010_01557_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Karna A, Voeten M, Little TD, Alanen E, Poskiparta E, Salmivalli C (2013). Effectiveness of the KiVa antibullying program: grades 1-3 and 7-9. Journal of Educational Psychology 105(2):535-551.",
     "doi": "10.1037/a0030417",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Effects replicated in lower grades and were weaker in grades 7 to 9",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness of the KiVa Antibullying Program: Grades 1–3 and 7–9.",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Journal of Educational Psychology",
      "first_author": "Kärnä",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 261,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_a0030417.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Waasdorp TE, Bradshaw CP, Leaf PJ (2012). The impact of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports on bullying and peer rejection: a randomized controlled effectiveness trial. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 166(2):149-156.",
     "doi": "10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.755",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "A US cluster RCT in 37 elementary schools: schoolwide PBIS slowed growth in teacher-reported bullying and peer rejection",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Bullying and Peer Rejection",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine",
      "first_author": "Waasdorp",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 263,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_archpediatrics_2011_755.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hatzenbuehler ML, Schwab-Reese L, Ranapurwala SI, Hertz MF, Ramirez MR (2015). Associations between antibullying policies and bullying in 25 states. JAMA Pediatrics 169(10):e152411.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.2411",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "63,635 students in 25 states: laws with the core DOE components (scope, prohibited behaviors, district policy mandate) linked to 24% lower odds of bullying and 20% lower odds of cyberbullying",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Associations Between Antibullying Policies and Bullying in 25 States",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "JAMA Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Hatzenbuehler",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 157,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamapediatrics_2015_2411.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hatzenbuehler ML, Keyes KM (2013). Inclusive anti-bullying policies and reduced risk of suicide attempts in lesbian and gay youth. Journal of Adolescent Health 53(1 Suppl):S21-S26.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.08.010",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "LGB youth in counties where more districts had enumerated (sexual-orientation inclusive) policies had lower odds of a past-year suicide attempt",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Inclusive Anti-bullying Policies and Reduced Risk of Suicide Attempts in Lesbian and Gay Youth",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Journal of Adolescent Health",
      "first_author": "Hatzenbuehler",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 340,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1016_j_jadohealth_2012_08_010.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Meyer IH, Luo F, Wilson BDM, Stone DM (2019). Sexual orientation enumeration in state antibullying statutes in the United States: associations with bullying, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts among youth. LGBT Health 6(1):9-14.",
     "doi": "10.1089/lgbt.2018.0194",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "2015 national YRBS: statutes enumerating sexual orientation associated with lower suicide-attempt risk and higher feelings of safety for all students, not only sexual minorities",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Sexual Orientation Enumeration in State Antibullying Statutes in the United States: Associations with Bullying, Suicidal Ideation, and Suicide Attempts Among Youth",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "LGBT Health",
      "first_author": "Meyer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 58,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1089_lgbt_2018_0194.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kull RM, Greytak EA, Kosciw JG, Villenas C (2016). Effectiveness of school district antibullying policies in improving LGBT youths' school climate. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity 3(4):407-415.",
     "doi": "10.1037/sgd0000196",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "District policies that explicitly name sexual orientation and gender identity are associated with better LGBT student climate than generic policies",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness of school district antibullying policies in improving LGBT youths’ school climate.",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity",
      "first_author": "Kull",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 92,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_sgd0000196.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Yeager DS, Fong CJ, Lee HY, Espelage DL (2015). Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: theory and a three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 37:36-51.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.005",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: program effects decline with grade and are near zero or negative in grade 8 and above",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: Theory and a three-level meta-analysis",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology",
      "first_author": "Yeager",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 472,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Modecki KL, Minchin J, Harbaugh AG, Guerra NG, Runions KC (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: a meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health 55(5):602-611.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.06.007",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Measurement: mean prevalence about 35% traditional and 15% cyber, with wide variation by definition and instrument, so a district must fix one instrument and definition to track change",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Bullying Prevalence Across Contexts: A Meta-analysis Measuring Cyber and Traditional Bullying",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of Adolescent Health",
      "first_author": "Modecki",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1468,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Annual student-reported bullying victimization prevalence (past 30 days or past year, fixed instrument such as the YRBS item or the Olweus questionnaire) by school, grade and demographic group; number of reports received, number investigated within the policy timeline, number substantiated; share of students who say they would report; all compared to the prior three years.",
   "standard": "The policy shall name a specific evidence-based whole-school program with a written policy and classroom rules, enumerate protected characteristics including sexual orientation and gender identity, require a published reporting channel with an investigation deadline, and require an annual prevalence survey and report to the Board.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall implement the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, an evidence-based whole-school program with published controlled evaluations, in every school. Implementation shall include this written policy, posted classroom rules against bullying, parent information and support for targeted students. Bullying, including cyberbullying, on the basis of actual or perceived race, color, national origin, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, disability, or any other characteristic is prohibited. Each principal shall publish the reporting channel, including an anonymous option, in the student handbook and on the school website, shall begin an investigation within two school days of a report, and shall document the outcome within ten school days. The Superintendent shall administer the Olweus Bullying Questionnaire, containing a fixed bullying-victimization item, to all students in grades 3 through 12 each spring and shall report to the Board by October 1 of each year the prevalence by school, grade and demographic group, the number of reports received, the number investigated within the deadlines stated in this policy, the number substantiated, and the three-year trend.",
   "red_flags": [
    "bullying prohibited only in general terms with no enumerated characteristics",
    "no investigation timeline or no named investigator",
    "reporting channel described only as 'tell a trusted adult' with no form, email or anonymous option",
    "program named as 'character education' or an assembly with no whole-school component",
    "no requirement to measure prevalence; only counts of reports",
    "retaliation not addressed",
    "cyberbullying excluded when it occurs off campus even where it disrupts school"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "bullying",
     "cyberbullying",
     "harassment, intimidation and bullying",
     "HIB",
     "anti-bullying",
     "Olweus",
     "KiVa"
    ],
    "regex": "bully|cyber-?bully|harassment,? intimidation|\\bHIB\\b"
   },
   "law_notes": "All 50 states have anti-bullying statutes (Montana was last, 2015); most require a district policy and many require cyberbullying coverage and a reporting procedure. The US Department of Education's 2011 analysis identified 16 policy components; the three associated with lower bullying in Hatzenbuehler 2015 are a statement of scope, a description of prohibited behaviors and a requirement that districts adopt local policies. Roughly 20 states enumerate sexual orientation and gender identity. Title IX and Title VI obligations attach when bullying is based on sex, race or national origin, and Section 504 and the IDEA when it affects a student with a disability (OCR Dear Colleague Letters of 2010 and 2014).",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "model_clause_previous": "The district shall implement a whole-school bullying prevention program selected from programs with published controlled evaluations, with classroom rules, parent information and support for targeted students in every school. Bullying, including cyberbullying, on the basis of actual or perceived race, color, national origin, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, disability, or any other characteristic is prohibited. Each principal shall publish the reporting channel, including an anonymous option, in the student handbook and on the school website, shall begin an investigation within two school days of a report, and shall document the outcome within ten school days. The Superintendent shall administer a student climate survey containing a fixed bullying-victimization item to all students in grades 3 through 12 each spring and shall report to the Board by October 1 of each year the prevalence by school, grade and demographic group, the number of reports, investigations and substantiated cases, and the three-year trend.",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with each principal responsible for school-level implementation and the Director of Student Services coordinating the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program and the annual survey.",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent designates the Director of Student Services as program coordinator and contracts for Olweus Bullying Prevention Program training for a coordinating committee at every school.",
     "Each principal publishes the reporting channel, including an anonymous option, in the student handbook and on the school website, and posts classroom rules against bullying in every classroom.",
     "The Director of Student Services issues a report log template so each school records the date of every report, the date the investigation began, and the date the outcome was documented against the two-school-day and ten-school-day deadlines.",
     "The Superintendent sends parent information describing the enumerated protected characteristics, the reporting channel and the support available to targeted students to every family within 90 days of adoption.",
     "The district counsel reviews the reporting and investigation procedure against the state anti-bullying statute and Title IX, Title VI, Section 504 and IDEA obligations and reports any gap to the Board within 60 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent administers the Olweus Bullying Questionnaire to all students in grades 3 through 12 in the spring and records results by school, grade and demographic group as the baseline.",
     "Each principal convenes the school coordinating committee at least monthly during the first year to review the report log, deadline compliance and classroom rule enforcement.",
     "The Director of Student Services trains all staff, including bus drivers, aides and cafeteria staff, in the program's intervention protocol before the start of the second school year.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first annual report to the Board by October 1 covering prevalence, reports received, reports investigated within deadline, reports substantiated and the start of the three-year trend record."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent administers the fixed-item survey every spring and reports to the Board by October 1 each year with the three-year trend by school, grade and demographic group.",
     "Each principal audits the report log each semester and reports to the Superintendent the share of investigations begun within two school days and documented within ten school days.",
     "The Director of Student Services refreshes staff training annually and reviews the enumerated-characteristics list and the state statute for changes each year."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Annual student-reported bullying victimization prevalence on the fixed Olweus Bullying Questionnaire item, by school, grade and demographic group, plus number of reports received, number investigated within the two-school-day and ten-school-day deadlines, number substantiated, and share of students who say they would report.",
    "baseline": "The first spring administration of the Olweus Bullying Questionnaire in year one, broken out by school, grade and demographic group, together with the first full year of report-log counts; no prior-year district data exist until that administration.",
    "target": "Within 3 years of the baseline administration, district-wide student-reported victimization prevalence falls by at least 15 percent from baseline, consistent with the 15 to 16 percent victimization reduction in program meta-analyses, and in every year 100 percent of logged reports show an investigation begun within two school days and an outcome documented within ten school days, with the share of students who say they would report rising each year.",
    "benchmark": "Whole-school program meta-analyses across roughly 100 evaluations: perpetration down 19 to 20 percent and victimization down 15 to 16 percent; RCT-only pooled d of 0.15 for bullying and 0.21 for mental health; students in states with laws containing the Department of Education core components had 24 percent lower odds of being bullied and 20 percent lower odds of cyberbullying.",
    "report": "The Superintendent's annual written report to the Board by October 1, presenting prevalence by school, grade and demographic group, reports received, reports investigated within deadline, reports substantiated, and the three-year trend, with the Board recording whether the target was met in its minutes."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "evidence-based-whole-school-program",
     "text": "The policy names a specific evidence-based whole-school anti-bullying program with a written policy and classroom rules.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "enumerated-characteristics-so-gi",
     "text": "The policy enumerates protected characteristics and the list includes sexual orientation and gender identity.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "published-reporting-channel",
     "text": "The policy requires a published channel for reporting bullying.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "investigation-deadline",
     "text": "The policy sets a deadline by which a reported incident must be investigated.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-prevalence-survey",
     "text": "The policy requires an annual survey measuring the prevalence of bullying.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-board-report",
     "text": "The policy requires an annual report on bullying prevalence to the Board.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "corporal-punishment",
   "domain": "Corporal punishment",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "mental-health",
    "physical-health",
    "discipline",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "The meta-analysis specific to school corporal punishment (Visser et al. 2022) finds it associated with more externalizing behavior (r = 0.27, 21 studies, 67,400 children), more internalizing problems (r = 0.16) and lower school performance (r = -0.11, 977,367 children); a propensity-matched sample of young adults from the 19 states where it was legal shows lower high school GPA and more depressive symptoms; the 75-study meta-analysis of physical punishment finds 13 of 17 outcomes significantly worse and none better. No study has found that corporal punishment improves behavior or learning, and no study has found that ending it increases misbehavior.",
   "effect": "School CP: externalizing r = 0.27, internalizing r = 0.16, school performance r = -0.11; physical punishment generally: 13 of 17 outcomes worse (mental health problems d = 0.53, aggression d = 0.37), immediate compliance not even reliably improved (d = 0.14, n.s.).",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "The evidence is meta-analytic but correlational: no randomized or natural-experiment study of school corporal punishment exists, and none is likely, so the direction of causation is argued from consistency, dose and the absence of any benefit rather than from an experiment. Font and Cage (2018) found only physical abuse, not mild corporal punishment, predicted declines in cognitive test performance, though every form predicted lower school engagement; do not claim that mild corporal punishment measurably lowers test scores on that study. There is no US difference-in-differences study of suspensions or achievement before and after a state or district ban, so a district that ends paddling without a replacement behavior system could shift to suspension; the cross-national evidence that bans are followed by less adolescent fighting (Elgar et al. 2018) is ecological. The commonly repeated claim that states permitting corporal punishment have lower ACT scores has no locatable primary source and should not be used.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Visser LN, van der Put CE, Assink M (2022). The association between school corporal punishment and child developmental outcomes: a meta-analytic review. Children 9(3):383.",
     "doi": "10.3390/children9030383",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "School corporal punishment is associated with more externalizing (r = 0.27) and internalizing (r = 0.16) behavior and lower school performance (r = -0.11).",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Association between School Corporal Punishment and Child Developmental Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Review",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Children",
      "first_author": "Visser",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 34,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3390_children9030383.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gershoff ET, Grogan-Kaylor A (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology 30(4):453-469.",
     "doi": "10.1037/fam0000191",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "75 studies, 160,927 children: 13 of 17 outcomes significantly worse with physical punishment, none better; immediate compliance not significantly improved.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Family Psychology",
      "first_author": "Gershoff",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 933,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_fam0000191.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gershoff ET, Sattler KMP, Holden GW (2019). School corporal punishment and its associations with achievement and adjustment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 63:1-8.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.appdev.2019.05.004",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Propensity-matched young adults from the 19 permitting states who received school corporal punishment had lower high school GPA, more depressive symptoms and greater intent to spank.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School corporal punishment and its associations with achievement and adjustment",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology",
      "first_author": "Gershoff",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 58,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Heekes SL, Kruger CB, Lester SN, Ward CL (2022). A systematic review of corporal punishment in schools: global prevalence and correlates. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse 23(1):52-72.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1524838020925787",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "53 studies: school corporal punishment correlates with physical, academic, mental-health and behavioral problems; boys, Black students and children exposed to violence at home are most at risk.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Systematic Review of Corporal Punishment in Schools: Global Prevalence and Correlates",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Trauma, Violence, & Abuse",
      "first_author": "Heekes",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 129,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1524838020925787.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gershoff ET (2017). School corporal punishment in global perspective: prevalence, outcomes, and efforts at intervention. Psychology, Health and Medicine 22(sup1):224-239.",
     "doi": "10.1080/13548506.2016.1271955",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "No evidence that school corporal punishment enhances learning; cross-national longitudinal data show it predicts lower later math and vocabulary scores.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School corporal punishment in global perspective: prevalence, outcomes, and efforts at intervention",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Psychology, Health & Medicine",
      "first_author": "Gershoff",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 221,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_13548506_2016_1271955.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gershoff ET, Font SA (2016). Corporal punishment in U.S. public schools: prevalence, disparities in use, and status in state and federal policy. Social Policy Report 30(1):1-26.",
     "doi": "10.1002/j.2379-3988.2016.tb00086.x",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "District-level CRDC analysis: in over half of Alabama and Mississippi districts Black students were at least 51 percent more likely than white students to be struck; students with disabilities were over-represented in most districts.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Corporal Punishment in U.S. Public Schools: Prevalence, Disparities in Use, and Status in State and Federal Policy",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Child Policy Nexus",
      "first_author": "Gershoff",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 143,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_j_2379_3988_2016_tb00086_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Font SA, Cage J (2018). Dimensions of physical punishment and their associations with children's cognitive performance and school adjustment. Child Abuse and Neglect 75:29-40.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.008",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Honest limit: only physical abuse predicted lower cognitive performance over three years, but all forms of physical punishment, including mild corporal punishment, predicted lower school engagement.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Dimensions of physical punishment and their associations with children's cognitive performance and school adjustment",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Child Abuse & Neglect",
      "first_author": "Font",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 46,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Elgar FJ, Donnelly PD, Michaelson V, et al. (2018). Corporal punishment bans and physical fighting in adolescents: an ecological study of 88 countries. BMJ Open 8(9):e021616.",
     "doi": "10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021616",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Countries with full bans had less frequent adolescent fighting (69 percent of the no-ban rate for boys, 42 percent for girls); bans are not followed by more violence. Ecological.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Corporal punishment bans and physical fighting in adolescents: an ecological study of 88 countries",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "BMJ Open",
      "first_author": "Elgar",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 47,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_bmjopen_2018_021616.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Zolotor AJ, Puzia ME (2010). Bans against corporal punishment: a systematic review of the laws, changes in attitudes and behaviours. Child Abuse Review 19(4):229-247.",
     "doi": "10.1002/car.1131",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Across 24 countries, bans are followed by declining support for and use of corporal punishment.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Bans against corporal punishment: a systematic review of the laws, changes in attitudes and behaviours",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Child Abuse Review",
      "first_author": "Zolotor",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 161,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_car_1131.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Allison MA, Beers N, Peterson JW, AAP Council on School Health (2023). Corporal punishment in schools. Pediatrics 152(3):e2023063284.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2023-063284",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "AAP recommends that corporal punishment in all school settings be abolished in all states by law and replaced by alternative behavior management.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Corporal Punishment in Schools",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Allison",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 12,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2023_063284.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sege RD, Siegel BS, AAP Council on Child Abuse and Neglect (2018). Effective discipline to raise healthy children. Pediatrics 142(6):e20183112.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2018-3112",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Aversive strategies including all forms of corporal punishment are minimally effective short-term and not effective long-term.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effective Discipline to Raise Healthy Children",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Sege",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 203,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2018_3112.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (2023). Corporal Punishment in Public Schools (Focus on Student Discipline, Part 4 of 5), 2017-18 Civil Rights Data Collection.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://civilrightsdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/Corporal_Punishment_Part4.pdf",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Federal data: Black students were 15 percent of enrollment and 37 percent of students struck in 2017-18; IDEA students 13 percent of enrollment and 16.5 percent of those struck.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (2025). 2021-22 Civil Rights Data Collection: A First Look.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ed.gov/media/document/2021-22-crdc-first-look-report-109194.pdf",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "About 24,500 students received corporal punishment in 2021-22; Black boys were 8 percent of enrollment and 20 percent of students struck; the Department calls the practice likely underreported.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cardona MA (2023). Letter from the Secretary of Education to governors and chief state school officers calling for an end to corporal punishment in schools, March 24, 2023.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ed.gov/laws-and-policy/key-policy-letters/letter-secretary-cardona-calling-end-corporal-punishment-schools",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Federal executive position: states should end the practice; Black students 2.3 times and Black girls 4 times as likely as white peers to receive it in 2017-18.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Instances of corporal punishment reported to the Civil Rights Data Collection (should be zero), with a district count reconciled to building discipline logs; presence of a written prohibition; where state law still permits it, the written opt-in consent rate, witness records and the race, sex and disability breakdown of students struck.",
   "standard": "Corporal punishment is prohibited in policy for every student in every setting, with physical force limited to the restraint standard, and the prohibition is communicated to staff and families annually.",
   "model_clause": "No employee, volunteer or contractor of the district shall administer corporal punishment to any student. Corporal punishment means the deliberate infliction of physical pain as a disciplinary measure, including striking with a hand or object, slapping, pinching, shaking, forced exercise and the withholding of food, water or restroom access. This prohibition applies in every district school, program, vehicle and sponsored activity and may not be waived by parental consent. Physical force shall be used only as permitted by the district's restraint and seclusion policy to prevent imminent physical harm. The Superintendent shall publish this prohibition in the student handbook and the staff handbook each August and shall report to the Board by September 30 of each year the number of substantiated allegations of corporal punishment in the prior school year, the action taken on each, and the figure submitted to the Civil Rights Data Collection. Any employee who administers corporal punishment shall be subject to discipline up to and including termination, and the Superintendent shall report the incident to the state child protection agency where state law requires.",
   "red_flags": [
    "corporal punishment listed among permitted consequences",
    "'corporal punishment may be administered by the principal or designee'",
    "parental consent, opt-in or opt-out forms for paddling",
    "'reasonable force' defined to include paddling or spanking",
    "a witness, instrument size or number-of-licks rule, which signals the practice is retained",
    "'in accordance with state law' with no district prohibition where state law permits the practice"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "corporal punishment",
     "paddling",
     "paddle",
     "spanking",
     "physical punishment",
     "licks",
     "swats"
    ],
    "regex": "corporal punishment|paddl(e|ing)|spank|swat|physical punishment"
   },
   "law_notes": "Ingraham v. Wright, 430 U.S. 651 (1977) held that the Eighth Amendment does not apply to school corporal punishment and that no hearing is required before it, leaving substantive due process claims for excessive force open in the circuits. As of September 2026 corporal punishment in public schools is legal by statute in 17 states (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Wyoming); in Kentucky and North Carolina every district has prohibited it by policy. Five states bar it for students with disabilities while permitting it otherwise (Louisiana 2017, Tennessee 2018, Arkansas 2019, Mississippi 2019, Oklahoma 2025). Where state law permits it, district policy is the operative prohibition. The Protecting Our Students in Schools Act (H.R. 3265, 2025) would bar it in federally funded schools and has not had a hearing. The AAP (2023) and the Secretary of Education (2023) have called for state bans.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Student Services as day-to-day lead and the Board Policy Committee as reviewer",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Board adopts the model clause by vote within 30 days and the Superintendent files it in the policy manual, superseding any prior policy that permitted corporal punishment or parental opt-in.",
     "The Superintendent sends every employee, volunteer and contractor a written notice of the prohibition within 60 days and obtains a signed acknowledgment from each, retained in personnel files.",
     "The Director of Student Services cross-checks the restraint and seclusion policy within 60 days so that physical force is limited to preventing imminent physical harm and no reference to paddling, striking or corporal punishment remains in any district document.",
     "The Director of Student Services pulls the district's most recent Civil Rights Data Collection corporal punishment submission and building discipline logs within 90 days and reconciles the two counts as the baseline.",
     "The Superintendent names a single intake route for allegations and directs that every allegation of corporal punishment be investigated and logged, with a referral to the state child protection agency where state law requires."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent publishes the prohibition in the student handbook and the staff handbook in August and documents the publication date.",
     "Building principals brief all staff on the prohibition and the restraint standard during the August in-service, with sign-in sheets kept.",
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by September 30 the number of substantiated allegations in the prior school year, the action taken on each, and the figure submitted to the Civil Rights Data Collection.",
     "Human Resources applies discipline up to and including termination to any employee substantiated as having administered corporal punishment and records the outcome."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent repeats the August handbook publication and the September 30 Board report every year.",
     "The Director of Student Services reconciles the Civil Rights Data Collection count to building discipline logs each year before submission.",
     "The Board reviews the policy for consistency with state law every 1 to 3 years and whenever the legislature acts on corporal punishment."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Number of instances of corporal punishment in the district, counted as substantiated allegations in the Superintendent's annual report and as the figure submitted to the Civil Rights Data Collection, reconciled to building discipline logs; plus presence of the written prohibition in both handbooks.",
    "baseline": "The most recent Civil Rights Data Collection corporal punishment count and the building discipline log count, reconciled, as of policy adoption; the written prohibition exists or does not.",
    "target": "Zero instances of corporal punishment reported in the first full school year after adoption and every year after, with the reconciled count and the CRDC submission both at zero, and the prohibition published in both handbooks each August.",
    "benchmark": "The indicator sets the benchmark at zero instances reported to the Civil Rights Data Collection. The entry gives no numeric target for behavioral or academic outcomes; the finding supports only the direction (no study shows ending corporal punishment increases misbehavior, and school corporal punishment is associated with worse externalizing behavior at r = 0.27, internalizing problems at r = 0.16 and school performance at r = -0.11).",
    "report": "The Superintendent's written report to the Board by September 30 each year, stating substantiated allegations, action taken on each, the CRDC figure and the reconciliation to building logs, with the handbook publication dates attached."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "prohibits-corporal-punishment",
     "text": "The policy prohibits corporal punishment for every student in every setting.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "force-limited-to-restraint",
     "text": "The policy limits any physical force to the restraint standard.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-staff-communication",
     "text": "The policy requires the prohibition to be communicated to staff annually.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-family-communication",
     "text": "The policy requires the prohibition to be communicated to families annually.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-permitted-consequence",
     "text": "The policy does not list corporal punishment among permitted consequences or allow it by the principal or designee.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-consent-or-procedure-rules",
     "text": "The policy contains no parental consent forms, witness, instrument or number-of-licks rules, or reasonable force defined to include paddling.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "dress-code",
   "domain": "Dress codes and uniforms",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "discipline",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate",
    "physical-health"
   ],
   "finding": "The best causal evidence on uniforms (school fixed effects in a large urban district) finds a modest attendance gain in secondary grades and no effect on achievement or discipline, and national longitudinal data show no behavior or attendance advantage; the evidence that dress rules improve learning is weak. The evidence on enforcement is clearer: GAO's national review found dress codes restrict items typically worn by girls more than boys, strict enforcement in more than four in five predominantly Black schools against about one third of predominantly white schools, informal class removals in 44 percent of codes, and body-measuring rules in 60 percent; Black girls receive disproportionate office referrals for dress code and other subjective infractions.",
   "effect": "Uniforms: small secondary attendance gain, no achievement effect (Gentile and Imberman); no behavior or attendance link in national elementary data (Ansari et al.); physical-activity-enabling uniforms: no significant MVPA gain in a 42-school cluster RCT. Enforcement: strict codes in more than 80% of predominantly Black schools vs about 33% of predominantly white schools (GAO).",
   "evidence_tier": "C",
   "counter_evidence": "Gentile and Imberman (2012) do find an attendance improvement in middle and high school and large increases in elementary teacher retention after uniform adoption, and Ansari et al. (2022) find low-income students in uniform schools attended better, so uniforms are not harmful on the evidence; they are simply not a lever for achievement. Cross-national PISA correlations (Baumann and Krskova 2016) link uniforms with better classroom discipline, but they cannot separate uniforms from the schools that choose them. Brunsma and Rockquemore (1998) found a small negative achievement association that later commentators disputed. The GAO findings describe enforcement patterns, not outcomes, and the harm case for strict dress codes rests on the exclusionary-discipline evidence (see exclusionary-discipline) rather than on dress-code studies themselves. The one RCT in this area (Nathan et al. 2021) tested sports uniforms for physical activity and found no significant primary effect.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Gentile E, Imberman SA (2012). Dressed for success? The effect of school uniforms on student achievement and behavior. Journal of Urban Economics 71(1):1-17.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jue.2011.10.002",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Student and school fixed effects in a large urban district: uniform adoption improves attendance in secondary grades and elementary teacher retention; no statistically significant effect on achievement or disciplinary infractions.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Dressed for success? The effect of school uniforms on student achievement and behavior",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Journal of Urban Economics",
      "first_author": "Gentile",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 40,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Brunsma DL, Rockquemore KA (1998). Effects of student uniforms on attendance, behavior problems, substance use, and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Research 92(1):53-62.",
     "doi": "10.1080/00220679809597575",
     "url": null,
     "year": 1998,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "National (NELS:88) tenth-grade data: no effect of uniforms on attendance, behavior or substance use, and a small negative association with achievement.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of Student Uniforms on Attendance, Behavior Problems, Substance Use, and Academic Achievement",
      "year": 1998,
      "journal": "The Journal of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Brunsma",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 105,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_00220679809597575.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ansari A, Shepard M, Gottfried MA (2022). School uniforms and student behavior: is there a link? Early Childhood Research Quarterly 58:278-286.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.09.012",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "ECLS-K:2011 elementary cohort: students in uniform schools showed no better social behavior or attendance, except better attendance among low-income students.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School uniforms and student behavior: is there a link?",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Early Childhood Research Quarterly",
      "first_author": "Ansari",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 19,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Yeung R (2009). Are school uniforms a good fit? Results from the ECLS-K and the NELS. Educational Policy 23(6):847-874.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0895904808330170",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Two national datasets: uniforms have no consistent effect on achievement.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Are School Uniforms a Good Fit?",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Educational Policy",
      "first_author": "Yeung",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 29,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0895904808330170.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Reidy J (2021). Reviewing school uniform through a public health lens: evidence about the impacts of school uniform on education and health. Public Health Reviews 42:1604212.",
     "doi": "10.3389/phrs.2021.1604212",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Literature review: uniforms have no direct impact on academic performance but do affect physical and psychological health; girls, minorities and poorer students bear the harm of poorly designed policies.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reviewing School Uniform through a Public Health Lens: Evidence about the Impacts of School Uniform on Education and Health",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Public Health Reviews",
      "first_author": "Reidy",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 25,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3389_phrs_2021_1604212.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Nathan N, McCarthy N, Hope K, et al. (2021). The impact of school uniforms on primary school student's physical activity at school: outcomes of a cluster randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 18:17.",
     "doi": "10.1186/s12966-021-01084-0",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "42 Australian primary schools: a physical-activity-enabling uniform produced no significant change in girls' MVPA; small reduction in sedentary time across all students.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of school uniforms on primary school student’s physical activity at school: outcomes of a cluster randomized controlled trial",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity",
      "first_author": "Nathan",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 39,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1186_s12966_021_01084_0.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Government Accountability Office (2022). K-12 Education: Department of Education Should Provide Information on Equity and Safety in School Dress Codes. GAO-23-105348, October 25, 2022.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-105348",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "National review of district dress codes: more restrictions on items typically worn by girls; strict enforcement in more than four in five predominantly Black schools and about one third of predominantly white schools; 44 percent of codes allow informal removal from class; 60 percent include body-measuring rules.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Edwards TK, Marshall C (2020). Undressing policy: a critical analysis of North Carolina (USA) public school dress codes. Gender and Education 32(6):732-750.",
     "doi": "10.1080/09540253.2018.1503234",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Content analysis of 122 North Carolina dress codes: policies place special restrictions on girls' dress, reinforce binary gender norms, and treat race as a factor in dress language.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Undressing policy: a critical analysis of North Carolina (USA) public school dress codes",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Gender and Education",
      "first_author": "Edwards",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 27,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_09540253_2018_1503234.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Morris EW, Perry BL (2017). Girls behaving badly? Race, gender, and subjective evaluation in the discipline of African American girls. Sociology of Education 90(2):127-148.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0038040717694876",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Multilevel analysis of discipline records: Black girls are three times as likely as white girls to receive an office referral, with disproportionate referrals for subjective infractions including dress code violations.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Girls Behaving Badly? Race, Gender, and Subjective Evaluation in the Discipline of African American Girls",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Sociology of Education",
      "first_author": "Morris",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 239,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0038040717694876.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Baumann C, Krskova H (2016). School discipline, school uniforms and academic performance. International Journal of Educational Management 30(6):1003-1029.",
     "doi": "10.1108/ijem-09-2015-0118",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: PISA cross-national correlations associate uniform-wearing with better classroom discipline; cannot separate uniforms from school selection.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School discipline, school uniforms and academic performance",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "International Journal of Educational Management",
      "first_author": "Baumann",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 99,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1108_ijem_09_2015_0118.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "National Women's Law Center (2018). Dress Coded: Black Girls, Bodies, and Bias in D.C. Schools.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://nwlc.org/resource/dresscoded/",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Review of District of Columbia high school dress codes and student accounts: most published codes ban head wraps or scarves, and students report Black girls are targeted for enforcement.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Dress code referrals, class removals and suspensions per 100 students by building, race and sex (student information system; informal removals must be logged to be counted); instructional minutes lost to dress code enforcement; share of the code's rules that are gender-specific or require measuring a student's body; parent and student complaints about dress enforcement.",
   "standard": "Dress rules are limited to health, safety and the prohibition of hate speech and obscenity, apply identically to all students regardless of sex, do not require measuring bodies or clothing, protect religious and cultural dress and natural hair, and are enforced without removal from instruction or exclusion from school, with enforcement data reported by student group.",
   "model_clause": "The district's dress code shall be limited to requirements of health and safety and to the prohibition of clothing that displays obscenity, threats, hate speech, or the promotion of illegal substances or violence. Students shall be permitted to wear religious and cultural dress and head coverings, protective and natural hairstyles, and clothing consistent with their gender identity. No rule shall apply to one sex only, and no rule shall require a staff member to measure any part of a student's body or clothing. Shoulders, collarbones, midriffs and leggings shall not be grounds for discipline. A dress code violation shall be addressed by a private conversation and, where available, a loaner garment; no student shall be removed from class, sent home, assigned in-school or out-of-school suspension, or excluded from any school activity for a dress code violation, and no staff member shall comment on a student's body in enforcing this policy. Each principal shall log every dress code intervention, including informal removals, in the student information system. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by September 30 each year the number of dress code interventions for the prior school year by building, race and sex, and the Board shall revise any rule whose enforcement rate for Black students or for female students exceeds twice the rate for white or male students. Any school uniform requirement shall provide free uniforms to students who qualify for free or reduced-price meals and shall not be enforced by exclusion from instruction.",
   "red_flags": [
    "'fingertip length', 'two inches above the knee', 'three-finger straps' or other measurement rules",
    "rules naming girls' items only (skirts, leggings, tank tops, spaghetti straps) or 'distracting' clothing",
    "bans on head wraps, durags, braids, locs, hairstyles or hair length",
    "dress code violation listed as grounds for in-school or out-of-school suspension",
    "'students will be sent home to change' with no requirement to log the removal",
    "'administration has final authority to determine appropriate dress' with no stated criteria",
    "uniform requirement with no free-uniform provision for low-income students"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "dress code",
     "uniform",
     "attire",
     "appearance",
     "grooming",
     "hair",
     "head covering",
     "hat"
    ],
    "regex": "dress code|uniform(s)?|attire|grooming|appearance|head ?covering|hairstyle|hair length"
   },
   "law_notes": "Tinker v. Des Moines, 393 U.S. 503 (1969) protects student expression absent substantial disruption, which limits content-based dress rules. Title IX and Title VI expose sex-specific and racially disparate enforcement to federal complaint, and GAO (2022) asked the Department of Education to issue equity guidance; the recommendations remained open as of August 2025. More than twenty states have enacted CROWN Acts barring discrimination based on hair texture and protective styles in schools. Religious dress is protected under the First Amendment and state religious-freedom statutes. The federal government sets no dress code standard; state statutes commonly authorize but do not require district dress codes and uniforms, and several (for example California Education Code 35183) require an opt-out or free uniforms when a uniform is adopted.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Student Services as day-to-day lead and each building principal responsible for logging and enforcement in their school.",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent directs the General Counsel to audit every existing dress rule in the district and each building handbook against the clause, flagging any rule that is sex-specific, requires measuring a body or garment, or restricts shoulders, collarbones, midriffs or leggings.",
     "The Director of Student Services rewrites the district dress code and every building handbook to the model clause's limits (health, safety, obscenity, threats, hate speech, promotion of illegal substances or violence) and strikes the flagged rules.",
     "The Director of Technology adds a dress code intervention category to the student information system with required fields for building, student race and sex, type of intervention, and whether any instructional time was lost, so informal removals can be logged.",
     "Each principal trains all staff within 60 days on the private-conversation response, the ban on body comments, the loaner garment process, and the duty to log every intervention including informal removals.",
     "The Business Office establishes a loaner garment supply in each building and a procedure for providing free uniforms to students who qualify for free or reduced-price meals in any school that keeps a uniform requirement."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by September 30 the prior year's dress code interventions by building, race and sex, with rates per 100 students and instructional minutes lost.",
     "The Board reviews the report and revises or repeals any rule whose enforcement rate for Black students or for female students exceeds twice the rate for white or male students.",
     "The Director of Student Services reviews parent and student complaints about dress enforcement quarterly and refers any report of class removal, send-home, suspension or body comment to the principal's supervisor for corrective action.",
     "The General Counsel reviews the revised code against Title IX, Title VI, the state CROWN Act if one is in force, the First Amendment, and any state uniform opt-out or free-uniform statute, and reports compliance to the Board."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent delivers the September 30 enforcement report to the Board every year and the Board acts on any rule that crosses the two-to-one threshold.",
     "Each principal spot-checks the intervention log against staff and student reports at least once per semester to confirm informal removals are being logged.",
     "The Director of Student Services re-audits the district and building codes every year for gender-specific rules and body-measuring rules and reports the share remaining to the Board."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Dress code interventions, class removals and suspensions per 100 students by building, race and sex, drawn from the student information system log that includes informal removals; instructional minutes lost to dress code enforcement; share of code rules that are gender-specific or require measuring a student's body; parent and student complaints about dress enforcement.",
    "baseline": "The first full school year of logged data after the student information system category is live, reported by September 30; the district has no prior count because informal removals were not logged.",
    "target": "Zero class removals, send-homes, suspensions or activity exclusions for dress code violations in every year after adoption; zero gender-specific rules and zero body-measuring rules in the district and building codes within 90 days; and no student group's dress code intervention rate exceeding twice the rate for white or male students in any building by the end of year one, holding in years two and three.",
    "benchmark": "The entry provides no numeric benchmark for an acceptable intervention rate; the only numbers it supports are the GAO national findings (strict codes in more than 80 percent of predominantly Black schools against about 33 percent of predominantly white schools, informal class removals in 44 percent of codes, body-measuring rules in 60 percent) and the clause's own two-to-one disparity threshold, so the target is set on direction and on the clause's threshold.",
    "report": "Annual report to the Board by September 30 covering the prior school year, presented by the Superintendent, with the count of rules revised or repealed and the number of complaints received, and posted publicly with the Board minutes."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "limited-scope",
     "text": "The policy limits dress rules to health, safety, and the prohibition of hate speech and obscenity.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "sex-neutral",
     "text": "The policy applies dress rules identically to all students regardless of sex.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-measuring",
     "text": "The policy does not require measuring students' bodies or clothing to determine compliance.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "protects-religious-cultural-hair",
     "text": "The policy protects religious and cultural dress and natural hair.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-removal-or-exclusion",
     "text": "The policy enforces dress rules without removing students from instruction or excluding them from school.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "enforcement-data-by-group",
     "text": "The policy requires enforcement data to be reported by student group.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "restraint-and-seclusion",
   "domain": "Physical restraint and seclusion",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "safety",
    "physical-health",
    "mental-health",
    "equity-gaps",
    "discipline"
   ],
   "finding": "No outcome study shows that restraint or seclusion improves behavior or learning; the GAO found hundreds of allegations of abuse and death linked to their use in schools between 1990 and 2009, with untrained staff and non-aggressive children with disabilities as the recurring pattern. In 2021-22 about 105,700 students were restrained or secluded, and students served under IDEA were 14 percent of enrollment but 76 percent of those physically restrained and 68 percent of those secluded. A systematic review of 15 studies finds that school-wide prevention approaches reduce the frequency of restraint, but none is an RCT.",
   "effect": "IDEA students: 14% of enrollment, 76% of physical restraints, 68% of seclusions (2021-22); earlier CRDC analysis: students with disabilities 7 times as likely to be restrained and 4 times as likely to be secluded; reduction programs: most of 15 studies report significant decreases, magnitudes uncontrolled.",
   "evidence_tier": "D",
   "counter_evidence": "The evidence base is thin and the tier reflects that. Harm evidence is case-based (GAO's closed cases, media investigations) and from medical literature on restraint deaths rather than from controlled school studies. The reduction literature (Hodgkiss and Harding 2023; Trader et al. 2017) is mostly single-site pre-post designs without control groups. Federal counts are unreliable: GAO found about 70 percent of districts reported zero incidents in 2015-16 and that large districts had reported zeros in error, so trend claims from the CRDC are weak. Practitioners argue that restraint remains necessary in genuine emergencies to prevent injury, and no study claims otherwise; the standard here limits rather than bans physical restraint while banning seclusion, mechanical and chemical restraint and restraints that restrict breathing.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "US Government Accountability Office (2009). Seclusions and Restraints: Selected Cases of Death and Abuse at Public and Private Schools and Treatment Centers. GAO-09-719T, May 19, 2009.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-09-719t",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Hundreds of allegations of abuse and death 1990 to 2009; no federal law; 19 states had no law; in the 10 closed cases children with disabilities were often not aggressive, staff were untrained and some remained employed.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Government Accountability Office (2019). K-12 Education: Education Should Take Immediate Action to Address Inaccuracies in Federal Restraint and Seclusion Data. GAO-19-551R, June 18, 2019.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-19-551r",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "About 70 percent of the more than 17,000 districts reported zero restraint and zero seclusion in 2015-16; nine of the 30 largest districts reported zeros in error.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Government Accountability Office (2020). K-12 Education: Education Needs to Address Significant Quality Issues with its Restraint and Seclusion Data. GAO-20-345, April 21, 2020.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-20-345",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Federal quality controls were largely ineffective; definitions were applied inconsistently; six recommendations, all since implemented.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Department of Education (2012). Restraint and Seclusion: Resource Document. Washington, DC, May 15, 2012.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://sites.ed.gov/idea/idea-files/restraint-and-seclusion-resource-document/",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Fifteen principles: restraint and seclusion only when a child's behavior poses imminent danger of serious physical harm, never as discipline, never mechanical or restricting breathing, with parent notification and data review.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (2025). 2021-22 Civil Rights Data Collection: A First Look.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ed.gov/media/document/2021-22-crdc-first-look-report-109194.pdf",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "About 105,700 students were physically restrained, mechanically restrained or secluded in 2021-22; IDEA students were 14 percent of enrollment, 76 percent of those physically restrained and 68 percent of those secluded.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gage NA, Pico DL, Evanovich L (2022). National trends and school-level predictors of restraint and seclusion for students with disabilities. Exceptionality 30(1):1-13.",
     "doi": "10.1080/09362835.2020.1727327",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "CRDC analysis: students with disabilities are seven times more likely to be restrained and four times more likely to be secluded; students in separate special education schools are almost certain to experience one.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "National Trends and School-Level Predictors of Restraint and Seclusion for Students with Disabilities",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Exceptionality",
      "first_author": "Gage",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 38,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_09362835_2020_1727327.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hodgkiss B, Harding E (2023). Reducing physical restraint in educational settings: a systematic literature review. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs 23(4):265-277.",
     "doi": "10.1111/1471-3802.12598",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "15 studies (1999 to 2019) of school-wide or individual approaches; most saw a significant decrease in physical restraint; designs are mostly uncontrolled.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reducing physical restraint in educational settings: a systematic literature review",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs",
      "first_author": "Hodgkiss",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 6,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_1471_3802_12598.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Trader B, Stonemeier J, Berg T, et al. (2017). Promoting inclusion through evidence-based alternatives to restraint and seclusion. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 42(2):75-88.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1540796917698830",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Prevention through tiered behavior support, function-based intervention, monitoring and documented professional development reduces restraint and seclusion; emergency restraint remains.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Promoting Inclusion Through Evidence-Based Alternatives to Restraint and Seclusion",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities",
      "first_author": "Trader",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 40,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1540796917698830.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kern L, George HP, Evanovich LL, Hodnett JM, Freeman J (2024). A review of U.S. policy guidance and legislation on restraint and seclusion in schools: considerations for improvement. Exceptional Children 90(4):382-397.",
     "doi": "10.1177/00144029241247032",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Most states and territories have legislation or guidance, with wide differences in permitted use and in reporting for students with disabilities; no federal law.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Review of U.S. Policy Guidance and Legislation on Restraint and Seclusion in Schools: Considerations for Improvement",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "Exceptional Children",
      "first_author": "Kern",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 12,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_00144029241247032.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Mohr WK, Petti TA, Mohr BD (2003). Adverse effects associated with physical restraint. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 48(5):330-337.",
     "doi": "10.1177/070674370304800509",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2003,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Medical review of deaths and injuries proximal to physical restraint, including positional asphyxia; the basis for banning prone and breathing-restricting holds.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Adverse Effects Associated with Physical Restraint",
      "year": 2003,
      "journal": "The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry",
      "first_author": "Mohr",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 369,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_070674370304800509.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Scheuermann B, Peterson R, Ryan JB, Billingsley G (2016). Professional practice and ethical issues related to physical restraint and seclusion in schools. Journal of Disability Policy Studies 27(2):86-95.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1044207315604366",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Professional-practice consensus: restraint and seclusion are emergency procedures, not treatments or consequences, and require training, debriefing and oversight.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Professional Practice and Ethical Issues Related to Physical Restraint and Seclusion in Schools",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Disability Policy Studies",
      "first_author": "Scheuermann",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 38,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1044207315604366.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Incidents of physical restraint, mechanical restraint and seclusion per 100 students by building and by disability status, race and sex, reconciled between the district's incident log and the Civil Rights Data Collection submission (a zero submission from a district with special education programs is itself a red flag); injuries to students and staff during incidents; share of incidents with same-day parent notification; share of incidents involving a student with no behavior intervention plan.",
   "standard": "Seclusion, mechanical restraint, chemical restraint and any restraint that restricts breathing are prohibited; physical restraint is limited to imminent danger of serious physical harm, performed by trained staff, with same-day parent notice, a written incident report, a debrief, a behavior-plan review after repeated use, and quarterly public reporting.",
   "model_clause": "No student shall be placed in seclusion, defined as involuntary confinement alone in a room or area the student is prevented from leaving. No student shall be subjected to mechanical restraint, chemical restraint, prone or supine restraint, or any hold that restricts breathing or places pressure on the neck, chest or back. Physical restraint shall be used only when a student's behavior poses an imminent danger of serious physical harm to the student or others, only by staff who hold current certification in a Board-approved crisis intervention program, and only for as long as the danger persists; it shall never be used as punishment, as a consequence, for property damage alone, or for noncompliance. The staff member who applied the restraint shall notify the principal before the end of the school day and the principal shall notify the parent or guardian verbally the same day and in writing within one school day. A written incident report describing the behavior, the hold, its duration, the staff involved, any injury and the parent notification shall be completed within two school days and placed in the student's record. The principal shall convene a debriefing with the staff involved within two school days, and the student's IEP, Section 504 or behavior support team shall meet within ten school days after any second restraint in a school year to revise the student's behavior intervention plan. The Superintendent shall report to the Board each quarter, and publish on the district website by September 30 for the prior school year, the number of restraints by building, disability status, race and sex, the number of injuries, and the district's Civil Rights Data Collection submission.",
   "red_flags": [
    "seclusion, 'time-out room', 'calm room' or 'isolation room' permitted with the door closed or blocked",
    "restraint or seclusion listed as a disciplinary consequence",
    "prone, supine or mechanical restraint not expressly prohibited",
    "restraint permitted to prevent property damage or for 'disruption' or 'noncompliance'",
    "parent notification 'within a reasonable time' or not required",
    "no training requirement, or training 'as resources allow'",
    "no incident report, debrief or reporting to the Board",
    "'reasonable force' clause with no imminent-harm limit"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "restraint",
     "seclusion",
     "physical restraint",
     "mechanical restraint",
     "time-out room",
     "isolation",
     "crisis intervention",
     "CPI",
     "Safety-Care",
     "aversive"
    ],
    "regex": "restrain|seclusion|seclude|isolation room|time.?out room|aversive|crisis (prevention|intervention)"
   },
   "law_notes": "There is no federal statute on restraint or seclusion in schools; the Keeping All Students Safe Act (H.R. 6617 and S. 3448, introduced December 11, 2025) would ban seclusion and mechanical, chemical and breathing-restricting restraint in federally funded schools and has not advanced. The Department of Education's 2012 Resource Document sets fifteen principles that most state laws track. Every district must report restraint and seclusion incidents to the Civil Rights Data Collection, and GAO (2019, 2020) found that reporting unreliable. State law governs: Kern et al. (2024) find most states have a statute or guidance, with wide variation; Georgia prohibits seclusion outright; many states permit seclusion with conditions. IDEA requires that a student's IEP team consider positive behavioral interventions when behavior impedes learning (34 CFR 300.324(a)(2)(i)), which is the legal hook for a behavior plan review after repeated restraint.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Special Education as the designated restraint and seclusion coordinator",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent issues a written directive to all principals within 30 days that seclusion, mechanical restraint, chemical restraint, prone and supine restraint and any hold restricting breathing are prohibited effective immediately, and orders every seclusion room or area closed or repurposed.",
     "The Director of Special Education adopts a single incident report form and a district-wide incident log within 60 days, and reconciles the current log against the district's most recent Civil Rights Data Collection submission to establish the baseline.",
     "The Human Resources Director inventories which staff hold current certification in the Board-approved crisis intervention program and schedules certification for every building so each school has trained staff by day 90.",
     "Each principal reviews the past year's incident log within 90 days and refers any student restrained two or more times to the IEP, Section 504 or behavior support team for a behavior intervention plan review within ten school days.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first quarterly report to the Board covering restraints by building, disability status, race and sex, injuries, and the share of incidents with same-day parent notification."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Special Education trains every principal and crisis-certified staff member on the imminent-danger standard, the same-day parent notice, the two-day incident report, the two-day debrief and the ten-day plan review, and audits a sample of incident reports each quarter for compliance.",
     "The Director of Special Education implements a school-wide positive behavioral intervention and support program in every building, starting with the buildings that had the highest restraint rate per 100 students in the baseline year.",
     "The Superintendent publishes the prior school year's restraint data and the Civil Rights Data Collection submission on the district website by September 30 and certifies to the Board that the two sources match.",
     "The Board reviews the full year of quarterly reports and the disability, race and sex breakdowns at a public meeting and directs corrective action for any building that is an outlier."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board each quarter and publishes the annual data by September 30, with the incident log reconciled to the Civil Rights Data Collection submission every year.",
     "The Human Resources Director verifies annually that every staff member authorized to apply a physical restraint holds current crisis intervention certification and removes authorization when certification lapses.",
     "The Director of Special Education reviews every student with a second restraint in a school year to confirm the behavior intervention plan was revised within ten school days."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Incidents of physical restraint, mechanical restraint and seclusion per 100 students, by building and by disability status, race and sex, from the district incident log reconciled to the Civil Rights Data Collection submission; injuries to students and staff; share of incidents with same-day parent notification; share of incidents involving a student with no behavior intervention plan.",
    "baseline": "The prior school year's incident log and the district's most recent Civil Rights Data Collection submission, reconciled within 60 days of adoption; nationally, students served under IDEA were 14 percent of enrollment but 76 percent of physical restraints and 68 percent of seclusions in 2021-22, and earlier CRDC analysis found students with disabilities 7 times as likely to be restrained and 4 times as likely to be secluded.",
    "target": "Zero seclusions, mechanical restraints, chemical restraints and prone or supine restraints from the first quarterly report onward; physical restraints per 100 students declining each year for 3 years against the baseline year; 100 percent of incidents with same-day parent notification and a written report within two school days by the end of year one; the share of restraints involving students with disabilities moving toward their share of enrollment over 3 years.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric target for an acceptable restraint rate. The only benchmarks are the prohibited practices, which have a benchmark of zero, and the national disproportionality figures (IDEA students 14 percent of enrollment, 76 percent of restraints, 68 percent of seclusions), which the district can compare its own ratios against. A systematic review of 15 studies finds school-wide prevention approaches reduce restraint frequency, but magnitudes are uncontrolled and none is an RCT, so no expected percentage reduction is supported.",
    "report": "The Superintendent reports to the Board each quarter and publishes on the district website by September 30 for the prior school year the number of restraints by building, disability status, race and sex, the number of injuries, the share with same-day parent notification, and the district's Civil Rights Data Collection submission, with a note explaining any difference between the log and the submission; a zero submission from a district with special education programs is flagged for Board inquiry."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "seclusion-mechanical-chemical-breathing-",
     "text": "The policy prohibits seclusion, mechanical restraint, chemical restraint and any restraint that restricts breathing.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "physical-restraint-imminent-danger-only",
     "text": "The policy limits physical restraint to situations of imminent danger of serious physical harm.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "trained-staff-only",
     "text": "The policy requires that physical restraint be performed only by trained staff.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "same-day-parent-notice",
     "text": "The policy requires same-day notice to parents after any physical restraint.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "incident-report-debrief-plan-review",
     "text": "The policy requires a written incident report, a debrief, and a behavior-plan review after repeated use of restraint.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "quarterly-public-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires quarterly public reporting of restraint use.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "school-climate-measurement",
   "domain": "School climate measurement",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "climate",
    "achievement",
    "attendance",
    "discipline",
    "mental-health",
    "teacher-retention",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "School climate is a medium-sized correlate of achievement (meta-analysis of 37 K-12 studies), buffers the achievement penalty of low socioeconomic status, and predicts adolescent mental health, engagement and graduation; within-school improvements in safety, leadership and academic expectations measured on New York City's annual survey track lower teacher turnover and higher achievement in a design the authors call consistent with causation. Climate is changeable: a cluster-randomized trial of schoolwide PBIS reduced office referrals by 33 percent. What the evidence does not show is that surveying alone changes anything; the survey is the instrument that makes the rest of the manual's climate commitments testable.",
   "effect": "School climate to achievement: medium pooled correlation (37 studies); safety and expectations gains linked to achievement gains and lower teacher turnover within schools over time; climate intervention RCT: office referrals -33%; no direct effect estimated for the act of surveying.",
   "evidence_tier": "C",
   "counter_evidence": "Nearly all climate-outcome evidence is correlational and most reviews say so; schools with high achievement may produce good climate reports rather than the reverse. Definitions and instruments vary widely, which inflates heterogeneity across studies. Self-report scales show reference bias and normative developmental declines after grade 6 that can be misread as a worsening school, so year-over-year comparisons need a fixed instrument and cohort-aware interpretation. Using climate scores for high-stakes accountability may distort responses; the CORE districts use them for improvement, not sanctions. Response rates below about 70 percent make school-level scores unreliable, and no study evaluates whether mandating a survey, by itself, improves outcomes.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Thapa A, Cohen J, Guffey S, Higgins-D'Alessandro A (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research 83(3):357-385.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654313483907",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Landmark review of 206 studies: climate dimensions (safety, relationships, teaching and learning, environment, improvement process) relate to achievement, attendance, discipline and mental health",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Review of School Climate Research",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Thapa",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2337,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654313483907.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wang MT, Degol JL (2016). School climate: a review of the construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review 28(2):315-352.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10648-015-9319-1",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Defines the four climate domains (academic, community, safety, institutional environment) and reviews links to academic, behavioral and psychological outcomes; notes measurement inconsistency",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Climate: a Review of the Construct, Measurement, and Impact on Student Outcomes",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Wang",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1476,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Erdem C, Kaya M (2024). The relationship between school and classroom climate, and academic achievement: a meta-analysis. School Psychology International 45(4):380-408.",
     "doi": "10.1177/01430343231202923",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "37 K-12 studies 2000-2020: medium pooled correlation between school climate and achievement; small for classroom climate",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The relationship between school and classroom climate, and academic achievement: A meta-analysis",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "School Psychology International",
      "first_author": "Erdem",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 57,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_01430343231202923.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Berkowitz R, Moore H, Astor RA, Benbenishty R (2017). A research synthesis of the associations between socioeconomic background, inequality, school climate, and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research 87(2):425-469.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654316669821",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Positive climate mitigates the achievement penalty of low SES, but most studies cannot establish direction",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Research Synthesis of the Associations Between Socioeconomic Background, Inequality, School Climate, and Academic Achievement",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Berkowitz",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 631,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654316669821.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Aldridge JM, McChesney K (2018). The relationships between school climate and adolescent mental health and wellbeing: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Educational Research 88:121-145.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.ijer.2018.01.012",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "48 studies: better climate consistently associated with lower depression, anxiety and bullying victimization and higher wellbeing",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The relationships between school climate and adolescent mental health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "International Journal of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Aldridge",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 565,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Marinell WH, Yee DS (2016). School organizational contexts, teacher turnover, and student achievement: evidence from panel data. American Educational Research Journal 53(5):1411-1449.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831216667478",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Within-school changes on the annual NYC School Survey: gains in leadership, expectations, relationships and safety predict lower teacher turnover; safety and expectations gains predict achievement gains",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Organizational Contexts, Teacher Turnover, and Student Achievement",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 329,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831216667478.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Konold T, Cornell D, Jia Y, Malone M (2018). School climate, student engagement, and academic achievement: a latent variable, multilevel multi-informant examination. AERA Open 4(4).",
     "doi": "10.1177/2332858418815661",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "60,441 students and 11,442 teachers in 298 Virginia high schools: structure and support predict engagement, which predicts graduation and test performance",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Climate, Student Engagement, and Academic Achievement: A Latent Variable, Multilevel Multi-Informant Examination",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Konold",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 162,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2332858418815661.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Daily SM, Mann MJ, Kristjansson AL, Smith ML, Zullig KJ (2019). School climate and academic achievement in middle and high school students. Journal of School Health 89(3):173-180.",
     "doi": "10.1111/josh.12726",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "All ten climate domains relate to achievement in grades 6 to 12; academic support strongest, effects differ by level, so surveys should report by domain and grade band",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Climate and Academic Achievement in Middle and High School Students",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "Daily",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 137,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_josh_12726.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bradshaw CP, Waasdorp TE, Leaf PJ (2012). Effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on child behavior problems. Pediatrics 130(5):e1136-e1145.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2012-0243",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "37-school cluster RCT: a climate intervention reduced office discipline referrals 33% and improved behavior, showing climate is a changeable target worth measuring",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Child Behavior Problems",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Bradshaw",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 474,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2012_0243.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "West MR, Pier L, Fricke H, Hough H, Loeb S, Meyer RH, Rice AB (2020). Trends in student social-emotional learning: evidence from the first large-scale panel student survey. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 42(2):279-303.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373720912236",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "CORE districts' annual survey: self-reports decline after grade 6 on normative trends, so a policy must interpret year-over-year change against grade norms",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Trends in Student Social-Emotional Learning: Evidence From the First Large-Scale Panel Student Survey",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "West",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 62,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373720912236.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Duckworth AL, Yeager DS (2015). Measurement matters: assessing personal qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational Researcher 44(4):237-251.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189X15584327",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: self-report measures carry reference bias and are vulnerable when used for accountability, so climate data should drive improvement, not sanctions",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Measurement Matters",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Duckworth",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 993,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189X15584327.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "National Center for Education Statistics. ED School Climate Surveys (EDSCLS).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://nces.ed.gov/use-work/elementarysecondary/ed-school-climate-surveys-edscls",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Free, validated federal instrument for students (grades 5 to 12), staff and parents across engagement, safety and environment domains; a district can adopt it without cost",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Annual climate survey response rate by school and respondent group (target at least 70% of students and staff); domain scores (safety, relationships, engagement, environment) by school, grade band and demographic group with three-year trend; correlation of school climate scores with chronic absenteeism, suspension rate and achievement; the number of school improvement plans that cite a climate finding.",
   "standard": "The policy shall require a validated climate survey of students, staff and families every year, with a fixed instrument, a minimum response rate, results published by school and demographic group, and a requirement that each school improvement plan respond to its lowest climate domain.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall administer a validated school climate survey (the ED School Climate Surveys or an instrument with published reliability and validity evidence) to all students in grades 3 through 12, all staff and all families each spring, using the same core items for at least five consecutive years. Each principal shall obtain a response rate of at least 70 percent of enrolled students and staff. The Director of Research and Accountability shall publish by August 31 of each year the results by school, grade band, race, disability status, English learner status and gender, with three-year trends and the relationship of climate scores to chronic absenteeism, suspension rates and achievement. Each school improvement plan submitted by October 1 shall identify the school's lowest-scoring climate domain and the actions and budget assigned to it, and the Superintendent shall present the district summary to the Board at a public meeting by October 31. Climate results shall be used for improvement and shall not be used as the sole basis for any personnel action.",
   "red_flags": [
    "climate survey 'may' be administered or is left to principal discretion",
    "no named or validated instrument",
    "no response-rate requirement",
    "results reported only districtwide, not by school or demographic group",
    "no link from survey results to the school improvement plan",
    "survey used for staff evaluation or school sanctions",
    "instrument changed every year so trends cannot be read"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "school climate",
     "climate survey",
     "student survey",
     "perception survey",
     "school culture",
     "sense of belonging",
     "connectedness",
     "EDSCLS",
     "5Essentials",
     "Panorama"
    ],
    "regex": "school climate|climate survey|perception survey|student (voice|survey)|school culture|connectedness|belonging|EDSCLS|5Essentials|Panorama"
   },
   "law_notes": "ESSA (20 USC 6311(c)(4)(B)(v)) requires each state accountability system to include at least one indicator of school quality or student success, and several states use climate surveys for it. California's Local Control and Accountability Plan requires districts to report on school climate (Priority 6), typically with the California Healthy Kids Survey. Illinois (105 ILCS 5/2-3.153) requires a biennial statewide learning-conditions survey (5Essentials) of students and teachers. Maryland, Georgia, Nevada and others administer statewide climate surveys and publish school-level results. The federal EDSCLS instrument is free. Student surveys that ask about protected topics may trigger the Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment (20 USC 1232h) notice and opt-out requirements.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Research and Accountability administering the survey and publishing results",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Research and Accountability selects the ED School Climate Surveys or another instrument with published reliability and validity evidence and fixes the core items the district will keep for at least five consecutive years.",
     "The Superintendent sets the spring administration window for students in grades 3 through 12, all staff and all families, and issues each principal the 70 percent response rate requirement for students and staff.",
     "The district legal counsel reviews the student items against the Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment and the Director of Research and Accountability prepares the parent notice and opt-out form before any item on a protected topic is asked.",
     "The Director of Research and Accountability builds the reporting template that breaks results out by school, grade band, race, disability status, English learner status and gender, with fields for three-year trends and the links to chronic absenteeism, suspension rates and achievement."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal administers the survey in the spring, tracks daily completion and reaches at least 70 percent of enrolled students and staff before the window closes.",
     "The Director of Research and Accountability publishes the first results by August 31 and the relationship of climate scores to chronic absenteeism, suspension rates and achievement.",
     "Each principal names the school's lowest-scoring climate domain in the school improvement plan due October 1 and lists the actions and budget assigned to it.",
     "The Superintendent presents the district summary to the Board at a public meeting by October 31 and confirms that climate results have not been used as the sole basis for any personnel action."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Research and Accountability repeats the survey each spring with the same core items and adds the new year to the three-year trend tables published by August 31.",
     "The Superintendent reviews each October which schools fell below the 70 percent response rate and which improvement plans failed to cite a climate finding, and reports both counts to the Board by October 31."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of schools that reach a 70 percent response rate among students and staff, results published by school and demographic group by August 31, and the number of school improvement plans that name the lowest-scoring climate domain with assigned actions and budget",
    "baseline": "No district climate survey administered under a fixed instrument; the first spring administration sets the baseline for domain scores by school and group",
    "target": "In year one, every school reaches at least 70 percent of enrolled students and staff, results are published by August 31, and every school improvement plan submitted by October 1 cites its lowest-scoring climate domain; by year three, domain scores in safety, relationships, engagement and environment show a rising three-year trend at each school, with no demographic group falling",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives a 70 percent response rate floor for students and staff; it gives no numeric benchmark for domain score gains and notes that surveying alone has no estimated direct effect, so the score target is directional",
    "report": "The Director of Research and Accountability publishes results by August 31 each year and the Superintendent presents the district summary to the Board at a public meeting by October 31, with the response rate by school and the count of improvement plans citing a climate finding"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "annual-validated-survey",
     "text": "The policy requires a validated school climate survey of students, staff and families to be administered every year.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "fixed-instrument",
     "text": "The policy names a fixed survey instrument that is kept the same from year to year.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "minimum-response-rate",
     "text": "The policy sets a minimum response rate for the climate survey.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "results-by-school-and-group",
     "text": "The policy requires survey results to be published by school and by demographic group.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "improvement-plan-link",
     "text": "The policy requires each school improvement plan to respond to that school's lowest climate domain.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-evaluation-or-sanction-use",
     "text": "The policy does not use climate survey results for staff evaluation or school sanctions.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "sel",
   "domain": "Social-emotional learning",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "climate",
    "mental-health",
    "discipline"
   ],
   "finding": "Universal, sequenced social-emotional learning programs improve social-emotional skills, behavior and achievement: the 2011 meta-analysis of 213 programs found skills gains of 0.57 SD and an 11 percentile-point achievement gain in the 35 studies that measured it, follow-up effects persist at 0.13 to 0.33 SD six months to years later, and the 2023 meta-analysis of 424 studies with 575,361 students confirms positive effects across skills, behavior, climate and achievement. Effects are smaller in independent, at-scale trials than in developer-led efficacy trials and depend on implementation quality; some universal mental-health curricula have produced null or harmful results.",
   "effect": "Skills +0.57 SD, achievement +0.27 SD (11 percentile points), conduct problems -0.22 SD, emotional distress -0.24 SD (Durlak 2011); follow-up academic +0.33 SD in the few studies measuring it (Taylor 2017); reading and math about +0.25 SD (Corcoran 2018); effects roughly halve in independent at-scale trials (Wigelsworth 2016).",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "The 11 percentile-point figure comes from 35 of 213 studies, mostly developer-led, and Wigelsworth's 2016 meta-analysis found effects shrink substantially when trials are run independently and at scale. The largest independent UK trial of PATHS (45 schools, 4,516 children) found only small teacher-rated gains in social competence and nothing on academic outcomes, and effects of the 4Rs program in New York were modest after two years. Universal mental-health-flavored programs have failed outright: the MYRIAD mindfulness trial was null in 85 schools and a DBT-skills program worsened depression and anxiety. Program adoption without fidelity monitoring is the common failure mode; Durlak's SAFE criteria (sequenced, active, focused, explicit) and implementation quality moderate every meta-analytic estimate. SEL has also become politically contested in several states, and districts that cannot explain what is taught lose parent trust.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Durlak JA, Weissberg RP, Dymnicki AB, Taylor RD, Schellinger KB (2011). The impact of enhancing students' social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development 82(1):405-432.",
     "doi": "10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "213 programs, 270,034 students: SEL skills +0.57 SD, attitudes +0.23, positive behavior +0.24, conduct problems -0.22, distress -0.24, achievement +0.27 SD (11 percentile points)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Enhancing Students’ Social and Emotional Learning: A Meta-Analysis of School-Based Universal Interventions",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Durlak",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 8815,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_j_1467_8624_2010_01564_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Taylor RD, Oberle E, Durlak JA, Weissberg RP (2017). Promoting positive youth development through school-based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta-analysis of follow-up effects. Child Development 88(4):1156-1171.",
     "doi": "10.1111/cdev.12864",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "82 programs, 97,406 students: effects persist 6 months to 18 years after the program, including academic performance +0.33 SD and lower conduct problems, distress and drug use",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Promoting Positive Youth Development Through School-Based Social and Emotional Learning Interventions: A Meta-Analysis of Follow-Up Effects",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Taylor",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2350,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_cdev_12864.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Durlak JA, Mahoney JL, Boyle AE (2022). What we know, and what we need to find out about universal, school-based social and emotional learning programs for children and adolescents: A review of meta-analyses and directions for future research. Psychological Bulletin 148(11-12):765-782.",
     "doi": "10.1037/bul0000383",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000383",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Across 12 meta-analyses, universal SEL yields consistent positive effects on multiple outcomes, with implementation quality and program design as the key moderators",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "What we know, and what we need to find out about universal, school-based social and emotional learning programs for children and adolescents: A review of meta-analyses and directions for future research.",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Psychological Bulletin",
      "first_author": "Durlak",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 413,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cipriano C, Strambler MJ, Naples LH, et al. (2023). The state of evidence for social and emotional learning: A contemporary meta-analysis of universal school-based SEL interventions. Child Development 94(5):1181-1204.",
     "doi": "10.1111/cdev.13968",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13968",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "424 studies, 252 programs, 575,361 K-12 students from 2008 to 2020: significant gains in skills, attitudes, behavior, climate, peer relationships, school functioning and achievement, varying with content and implementation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The state of evidence for social and emotional learning: A contemporary meta-analysis of universal school-based SEL interventions",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Cipriano",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 638,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_cdev_13968.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Corcoran RP, Cheung ACK, Kim E, Xie C (2018). Effective universal school-based social and emotional learning programs for improving academic achievement: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 50 years of research. Educational Research Review 25:56-72.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.edurev.2017.12.001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.12.001",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "40 rigorous studies: SEL programs raise reading and math achievement by about a quarter of a standard deviation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effective universal school-based social and emotional learning programs for improving academic achievement: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 50 years of research",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Educational Research Review",
      "first_author": "Corcoran",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 508,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wigelsworth M, Lendrum A, Oldfield J, Scott A, ten Bokkel I, Tate K, Emery C (2016). The impact of trial stage, developer involvement and international transferability on universal social and emotional learning programme outcomes: A meta-analysis. Cambridge Journal of Education 46(3):347-376.",
     "doi": "10.1080/0305764X.2016.1195791",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2016.1195791",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: effects are markedly smaller in effectiveness trials, in trials without developer involvement, and when programs are transported across countries",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of trial stage, developer involvement and international transferability on universal social and emotional learning programme outcomes: a meta-analysis",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Cambridge Journal of Education",
      "first_author": "Wigelsworth",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 263,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_0305764X_2016_1195791.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Humphrey N, Barlow A, Wigelsworth M, et al. (2016). A cluster randomized controlled trial of the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) curriculum. Journal of School Psychology 58:73-89.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jsp.2016.07.002",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2016.07.002",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: in 45 English schools PATHS produced small teacher-rated gains in social-emotional competence and no measurable academic effect",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A cluster randomized controlled trial of the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) curriculum",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of School Psychology",
      "first_author": "Humphrey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 84,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1016_j_jsp_2016_07_002.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jones SM, Brown JL, Aber JL (2011). Two-year impacts of a universal school-based social-emotional and literacy intervention: An experiment in translational developmental research. Child Development 82(2):533-554.",
     "doi": "10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01560.x",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01560.x",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "The 4Rs program in 18 NYC elementary schools reduced hostile attribution and aggression and improved classroom quality after two years, with modest effect sizes",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Two-Year Impacts of a Universal School-Based Social-Emotional and Literacy Intervention: An Experiment in Translational Developmental Research",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Jones",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 351,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_j_1467_8624_2010_01560_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kuyken W, Ball S, Crane C, et al. (2022). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of universal school-based mindfulness training compared with normal school provision in reducing risk of mental health problems and promoting well-being in adolescence: The MYRIAD cluster randomised controlled trial. Evidence-Based Mental Health 25(3):99-109.",
     "doi": "10.1136/ebmental-2021-300396",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2021-300396",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: universal mindfulness lessons were no better than usual social-emotional teaching in 85 schools",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of universal school-based mindfulness training compared with normal school provision in reducing risk of mental health problems and promoting well-being in adolescence: the MYRIAD cluster randomised controlled trial",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Evidence Based Mental Health",
      "first_author": "Kuyken",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 285,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_ebmental_2021_300396.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Harvey LJ, White FA, Hunt C, Abbott M (2023). Investigating the efficacy of a Dialectical behaviour therapy-based universal intervention on adolescent social and emotional well-being outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy 169:104408.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.brat.2023.104408",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2023.104408",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: a universal DBT skills curriculum worsened depression and anxiety symptoms relative to class as usual",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Investigating the efficacy of a Dialectical behaviour therapy-based universal intervention on adolescent social and emotional well-being outcomes",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Behaviour Research and Therapy",
      "first_author": "Harvey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 50,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1016_j_brat_2023_104408.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). The CASEL framework and the CASEL Program Guide (SELect program ratings).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://casel.org/fundamentals-of-sel/what-is-the-casel-framework/",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Defines the five SEL competencies and rates programs by evidence and implementation support, which gives districts a program selection standard",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Adoption of a named, sequenced SEL program with a CASEL SELect or What Works Clearinghouse evidence rating in every grade; share of classrooms delivering the program at the scheduled dose, from fidelity walk-throughs; climate survey items on belonging, trusted adults and peer support (state climate survey or Panorama); office discipline referrals and suspensions by school.",
   "standard": "A sequenced, explicitly taught SEL program with an independent evidence rating is delivered in every grade K-12 at its designed dose, with annual implementation-fidelity checks, published scope and sequence for families, and annual measurement on the climate survey.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall adopt and deliver in every grade K-12 a sequenced social-emotional learning program that holds a CASEL SELect rating or a What Works Clearinghouse rating of moderate or strong evidence, taught at the dose specified by the program developer. The Director of Curriculum shall publish the scope and sequence and the lesson materials for family review on the district website before the first day of school each year and shall provide a written opt-out process. Principals shall complete implementation-fidelity observations in every classroom at least twice each year using the program's fidelity tool, and the Director of Curriculum shall provide coaching to any classroom below the program's fidelity threshold within 30 days. The Director of Curriculum shall report to the Board by November 1 of each year the program in use at each grade, the share of classrooms meeting the fidelity threshold, climate survey results on belonging and trusted adults by school, and discipline referrals by school.",
   "red_flags": [
    "social-emotional learning is prohibited or restricted in the curriculum",
    "SEL may be integrated at the discretion of the teacher (no program, no dose)",
    "character education assemblies substitute for a sequenced curriculum",
    "no measurement of climate or implementation",
    "program selected without an evidence rating",
    "no family-facing scope and sequence or opt-out process"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "social-emotional learning",
     "social emotional",
     "SEL",
     "character education",
     "self-regulation",
     "responsible decision-making",
     "CASEL",
     "PBIS",
     "second step",
     "restorative"
    ],
    "regex": "social[- ]emotional|\\bSEL\\b|character education|self-regulation|responsible decision|CASEL|second step|responsive classroom|PATHS"
   },
   "law_notes": "Illinois was the first state to mandate K-12 SEL standards (105 ILCS 5/2-3.153, Children's Mental Health Act of 2003) and most states now publish SEL standards or competencies, usually as guidance rather than mandate. Since 2022 several states have restricted or renamed SEL content in curriculum law or standards reviews (including Oklahoma and Florida), so program materials must be transparent to families. ESSA Title IV-A funds may support SEL programs.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Curriculum",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Curriculum inventories the SEL program in use at each grade K-12 and checks each against the CASEL SELect list and the What Works Clearinghouse ratings to identify grades with no program or a program without a moderate or strong evidence rating.",
     "The Director of Curriculum presents to the Board within 60 days a selection of candidate programs holding a CASEL SELect or What Works Clearinghouse moderate or strong rating for any grade lacking one, with the developer's specified dose and cost, including whether ESSA Title IV-A funds can cover it.",
     "The Director of Curriculum drafts the written family opt-out process and the website format for publishing the scope and sequence and lesson materials, and the Superintendent reviews it with district counsel against current state SEL law.",
     "Principals schedule the two annual fidelity observations per classroom on the school calendar and obtain the program developer's fidelity tool and fidelity threshold for each adopted program.",
     "The Director of Curriculum confirms with the Superintendent that the state climate survey or Panorama survey includes items on belonging, trusted adults and peer support and sets the administration date."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Curriculum publishes the scope and sequence and lesson materials for every grade on the district website before the first day of school, together with the written opt-out process.",
     "Principals complete the first fidelity observation in every classroom by the end of the first semester and the second by the end of the year, and the Director of Curriculum provides coaching to each classroom below the fidelity threshold within 30 days of the observation.",
     "The Director of Curriculum collects the fidelity results, the climate survey results on belonging and trusted adults by school, and office discipline referrals and suspensions by school, and reports them to the Board by November 1.",
     "The Director of Curriculum trains all teachers new to the program in its delivery before they begin teaching it, at the dose and sequence the developer specifies."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "Principals complete two fidelity observations per classroom each year and the Director of Curriculum coaches any classroom below threshold within 30 days.",
     "The Director of Curriculum republishes the scope and sequence and lesson materials before the first day of school each year and reports to the Board by November 1 on program in use by grade, share of classrooms meeting the fidelity threshold, climate survey results by school, and discipline referrals by school.",
     "The Director of Curriculum rechecks each program's CASEL SELect or What Works Clearinghouse rating annually and brings any program that loses its rating to the Board for replacement."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of grades K-12 using a program with a CASEL SELect or What Works Clearinghouse moderate or strong rating; share of classrooms meeting the program's fidelity threshold on observations; climate survey scores on belonging and trusted adults by school; office discipline referrals and suspensions by school.",
    "baseline": "Year-one inventory of programs by grade and the first round of fidelity observations, plus the first climate survey administration and the prior year's discipline referrals and suspensions by school.",
    "target": "Every grade K-12 using a rated program within 1 year; the share of classrooms meeting the fidelity threshold rising each year from the year-one baseline; climate survey scores on belonging and trusted adults rising and discipline referrals and suspensions falling at each school within 1 to 3 years.",
    "benchmark": "The research gives effect sizes, not an operational threshold: skills +0.57 SD, achievement +0.27 SD (11 percentile points), conduct problems -0.22 SD, emotional distress -0.24 SD in Durlak 2011, with effects roughly halving in independent at-scale trials (Wigelsworth 2016) and depending on implementation quality. No numeric fidelity or climate survey benchmark is given in the entry, so the target is directional against the district's own baseline.",
    "report": "The Director of Curriculum reports to the Board by November 1 each year the program in use at each grade, the share of classrooms meeting the fidelity threshold, climate survey results on belonging and trusted adults by school, and discipline referrals and suspensions by school, and posts the report on the district website alongside the published scope and sequence."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "sequenced-sel-program-every-grade",
     "text": "The policy requires a sequenced, explicitly taught SEL program delivered in every grade K-12 at its designed dose.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "independent-evidence-rating",
     "text": "The policy requires the SEL program to have an independent evidence rating.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-fidelity-checks",
     "text": "The policy requires annual implementation-fidelity checks of the SEL program.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "published-scope-and-sequence",
     "text": "The policy requires a published scope and sequence of the SEL program for families.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-climate-survey-measurement",
     "text": "The policy requires annual measurement of SEL on the climate survey.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "student-searches-and-due-process",
   "domain": "Student searches and due process in discipline",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "safety",
    "discipline",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "This domain is governed by constitutional standards rather than outcome research: Goss v. Lopez requires notice and an opportunity to respond before any suspension of ten days or less, New Jersey v. T.L.O. permits school searches on reasonable suspicion when justified at inception and reasonable in scope, and Safford v. Redding holds that a search of a student's underwear requires suspicion that the item is dangerous or hidden there. The one federal randomized trial of random drug testing found lower self-reported use among tested students (16 versus 22 percent) with no spillover to untested students, while national correlational studies find no association between testing and student drug use.",
   "effect": "Legal standards, not effect sizes. Drug testing: tested students 16% vs 22% past-30-day use in the federal RCT; no effect on untested students or on intentions; national surveys show no association.",
   "evidence_tier": "D",
   "counter_evidence": "Outcome evidence on searches and hearings is almost nonexistent; nobody has randomized due process. The drug-testing literature is the only causal evidence and it is mixed: the federal RCT (James-Burdumy et al. 2010) found less reported use among students actually subject to testing in seven volunteer districts, with no generalizable national estimate, while Yamaguchi et al. (2003) found no association between school testing and student drug use in national Monitoring the Future data, the SATURN prospective trial of athlete testing found no reduction in past-month use, and Sznitman and Romer (2014) found that a positive school climate, not testing, predicted less use. Courts have upheld suspicionless drug testing of students in extracurricular activities (Vernonia 1995; Earls 2002), so the limit on it here is a policy choice grounded in weak benefit evidence, not a legal requirement. Procedural-justice research in schools is correlational: students who see discipline as fair report less misconduct and more engagement, but the designs cannot show that hearings cause the difference.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Goss v. Lopez, 419 U.S. 565 (1975). Supreme Court of the United States, decided January 22, 1975.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/419/565",
     "year": 1975,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Students facing suspension of ten days or less must receive notice of the charges, an explanation of the evidence and an opportunity to present their side, normally before removal; immediate removal only for danger or ongoing disruption, with the hearing to follow as soon as practicable; longer exclusions may require more formal procedures.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985). Supreme Court of the United States, decided January 15, 1985.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/469/325",
     "year": 1985,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "School searches require reasonable suspicion, not probable cause: justified at inception when there are reasonable grounds to suspect a violation, and permissible in scope when the measures are reasonably related to the objectives and not excessively intrusive given the student's age and sex and the nature of the infraction.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Safford Unified School District #1 v. Redding, 557 U.S. 364 (2009). Supreme Court of the United States, decided June 25, 2009.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/08-479.ZS.html",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "A search of a 13-year-old's underwear for ibuprofen violated the Fourth Amendment: a search that intrusive requires suspicion that the item is dangerous or hidden in underwear; the officials had qualified immunity.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995). Supreme Court of the United States.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/515/646",
     "year": 1995,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Suspicionless random drug testing of student athletes is constitutional.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 of Pottawatomie County v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822 (2002). Supreme Court of the United States.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/536/822",
     "year": 2002,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Suspicionless drug testing of students in any competitive extracurricular activity is constitutional.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "James-Burdumy S, Goesling B, Deke J, Einspruch E (2010). The Effectiveness of Mandatory-Random Student Drug Testing. NCEE 2010-4025. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/sites/default/files/migrated/nces_pubs/ncee/pubs/20104025/pdf/20104025.pdf",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "36 high schools in 7 volunteer districts randomized to start testing a year apart: 16 percent of tested students reported past-30-day use of covered substances versus 22 percent of comparable students in control schools; no effect on untested students or on intentions to use.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Yamaguchi R, Johnston LD, O'Malley PM (2003). Relationship between student illicit drug use and school drug-testing policies. Journal of School Health 73(4):159-164.",
     "doi": "10.1111/j.1746-1561.2003.tb03596.x",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2003,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "National Monitoring the Future and Youth, Education and Society data 1998 to 2001: school drug testing was not associated with students' reported illicit drug use, including among male athletes.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Relationship Between Student Illicit Drug Use and School Drug‐Testing Policies",
      "year": 2003,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "Yamaguchi",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 92,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_j_1746_1561_2003_tb03596_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Goldberg L, Elliot DL, MacKinnon DP, et al. (2007). Outcomes of a prospective trial of student-athlete drug testing: the Student Athlete Testing Using Random Notification (SATURN) study. Journal of Adolescent Health 41(5):421-429.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.001",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2007,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Prospective trial in Oregon high schools: random testing of athletes did not reduce past-month drug or alcohol use over two school years and worsened some attitudinal risk factors.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Outcomes of a Prospective Trial of Student-Athlete Drug Testing: The Student Athlete Testing Using Random Notification (SATURN) Study",
      "year": 2007,
      "journal": "Journal of Adolescent Health",
      "first_author": "Goldberg",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 55,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sznitman SR, Romer D (2014). Student drug testing and positive school climates: testing the relation between two school characteristics and drug use behavior in a longitudinal study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 75(1):65-73.",
     "doi": "10.15288/jsad.2014.75.65",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "National adolescent panel: positive school climate predicted less later marijuana and cigarette use; school drug testing did not.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Student Drug Testing and Positive School Climates: Testing the Relation Between Two School Characteristics and Drug Use Behavior in a Longitudinal Study",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs",
      "first_author": "Sznitman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 20,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_15288_jsad_2014_75_65.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of suspensions for which the student record documents notice of charges, the evidence explained and the student's response before removal (discipline record audit); share of expulsion hearings with written notice, a hearing officer independent of the referring school, and a written decision; number of student searches logged with the basis for suspicion, by building, race and disability; strip searches (should be zero); complaints and appeals filed and their outcomes.",
   "standard": "Policy states the Goss procedures for every short suspension and a formal hearing with written notice, representation, evidence and a written decision for any exclusion beyond ten days; searches require individualized reasonable suspicion documented in writing, strip searches are prohibited, and searches and hearings are logged and reported by student group.",
   "model_clause": "Before any suspension of ten school days or fewer, the principal or designee shall tell the student the charge, explain the evidence, and give the student an opportunity to present the student's side; where a student's presence poses a continuing danger to persons or property or an ongoing threat of disrupting instruction, the student may be removed immediately and this conference shall occur within one school day. Written notice of the suspension, its basis and the appeal procedure shall be sent to the parent or guardian the same day. Any proposed exclusion of more than ten school days or expulsion shall require written notice to the parent at least five school days before a hearing before a hearing officer or Board panel not employed at the referring school, at which the student may be represented, present evidence and witnesses, and question the district's evidence, and a written decision with findings shall issue within five school days of the hearing; for a student with a disability, the manifestation determination required by law shall be completed within ten school days of the decision to remove. A search of a student's person, belongings, locker or vehicle shall require individualized reasonable suspicion, recorded in writing by the staff member before or immediately after the search, that the search will turn up evidence of a violation of law or school rules, and shall be no more intrusive than the suspected violation warrants. No student shall be strip searched or required to remove or expose undergarments by any district employee; where there is reasonable suspicion of an imminent danger to life, the principal shall contact law enforcement. Random or suspicionless searches of lockers may be conducted only under a written annual notice to students and families; the district shall not conduct suspicionless drug testing of students. Each principal shall log every search of a student's person or belongings and every suspension conference in the student information system. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by September 30 each year, for the prior school year and by building, race and disability status, the number of searches, the number of suspensions and expulsions, the share of suspensions with a documented pre-removal conference, the number of appeals and their outcomes, and the number of complaints alleging a search or hearing violation.",
   "red_flags": [
    "'the principal may suspend a student without a conference' or no mention of notice and opportunity to respond",
    "expulsion decided by the same principal who referred the student, with no independent hearing",
    "'students have no expectation of privacy' applied to their person as well as lockers",
    "search authority stated without a reasonable-suspicion standard or with 'any reason'",
    "strip search or 'search of undergarments' permitted by any employee",
    "suspicionless drug testing of all students or as a condition of parking or activities without a stated basis",
    "no appeal procedure, or an appeal available only 'at the discretion of the superintendent'",
    "no record-keeping requirement for searches"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "search",
     "seizure",
     "due process",
     "hearing",
     "appeal",
     "notice",
     "locker search",
     "drug testing",
     "strip search",
     "reasonable suspicion",
     "expulsion hearing",
     "metal detector"
    ],
    "regex": "search(es|ed)? (of|and) (students?|seizure|lockers?|persons?)|reasonable suspicion|due process|expulsion hearing|hearing officer|drug.?test|strip.?search|metal detector"
   },
   "law_notes": "Goss v. Lopez, 419 U.S. 565 (1975) sets the minimum process for suspensions of ten days or less and signals that longer exclusions need more. New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985) sets the reasonable-suspicion standard for searches by school officials; Safford v. Redding, 557 U.S. 364 (2009) bars underwear searches absent suspicion of danger or concealment there; Vernonia (1995) and Earls (2002) permit suspicionless drug testing of students in athletics and competitive extracurriculars. IDEA (34 CFR 300.530 to 300.536) requires a manifestation determination within ten school days of a decision to change the placement of a student with a disability for discipline, and Section 504 imposes a parallel duty. FERPA governs access to discipline records and the student's right to review them for a hearing. Many state statutes prescribe expulsion hearing procedures and timelines that are more specific than Goss; the clause above is a floor that state law may raise. Searches by school resource officers or police are judged under ordinary Fourth Amendment standards in some circuits, so policy should state which standard applies when an officer conducts the search.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Student Services as day-to-day owner and the General Counsel reviewing procedures",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The General Counsel reviews the clause against state expulsion hearing statutes, IDEA 34 CFR 300.530 to 300.536, Section 504 and FERPA, and drafts the administrative procedure, including which search standard applies when a school resource officer or police officer conducts the search.",
     "The Director of Student Services adds required fields to the student information system so every search is logged with the written basis for suspicion and every suspension conference is logged with the charge, the evidence explained and the student's response.",
     "The Superintendent issues the written annual notice to students and families describing when random locker searches may occur and stating that the district does not conduct suspicionless drug testing.",
     "The Director of Student Services trains every principal, assistant principal and dean on the Goss conference, the one school day limit for emergency removals, same-day written notice to parents, the reasonable-suspicion search record and the strip search prohibition.",
     "The Superintendent names a pool of hearing officers or Board panel members not employed at any referring school and publishes the expulsion hearing procedure, including the five school day notice and five school day decision timelines."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Student Services audits a sample of suspension records from each building each semester for the documented pre-removal conference and same-day parent notice, and reports the results to the principal and Superintendent.",
     "The Director of Special Education tracks every removal of a student with a disability and confirms the manifestation determination is completed within ten school days of the decision to remove.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first report to the Board by September 30 covering searches, suspensions, expulsions, documented conferences, appeals, complaints and strip searches, broken out by building, race and disability status.",
     "The General Counsel reviews every complaint alleging a search or hearing violation within 30 days and recommends corrective action to the Superintendent."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by September 30 each year on the prior year's searches, suspensions, expulsions, conference documentation, appeals and complaints by building, race and disability.",
     "The Director of Student Services retrains new administrators within 90 days of hire and all administrators annually on search and due process procedures.",
     "The General Counsel reviews the procedure each year against changes in state statute and court decisions and brings any needed amendments to the Board."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of suspensions with a documented pre-removal conference (charge, evidence and student response) and same-day parent notice; share of expulsion hearings with timely written notice, an independent hearing officer and a written decision within five school days; number of searches logged with a written basis, by building, race and disability; number of strip searches; manifestation determinations completed within ten school days; complaints and appeals and their outcomes.",
    "baseline": "Set from the first discipline record audit and the first September 30 report after adoption; the entry provides no district baseline.",
    "target": "Zero strip searches in every year; every exclusion over ten days has written notice at least five school days before the hearing and a written decision within five school days after it; every manifestation determination completed within ten school days; the share of suspensions with a documented pre-removal conference and same-day parent notice rises each year, with the gap between buildings and between student groups narrowing, as shown in the September 30 report within 1 to 3 years.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric benchmark for conference documentation or search rates; the only numeric evidence is the federal drug testing trial (16 versus 22 percent use), which the clause does not rely on because it bars suspicionless drug testing. The standards are legal floors from Goss, T.L.O., Safford and IDEA, so full compliance is the benchmark.",
    "report": "Superintendent's annual report to the Board by September 30, disaggregated by building, race and disability status, with the discipline record audit results attached."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "goss-short-suspension",
     "text": "The policy requires notice and an opportunity to respond before every suspension of ten days or less.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "formal-hearing-long-exclusion",
     "text": "The policy requires a formal hearing with written notice, representation, evidence and a written decision for any exclusion beyond ten days.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "reasonable-suspicion-searches",
     "text": "The policy requires individualized reasonable suspicion for any search of a student.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "searches-documented",
     "text": "The policy requires that the suspicion for each search be documented in writing.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "strip-searches-prohibited",
     "text": "The policy prohibits strip searches.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "logged-reported-by-group",
     "text": "The policy requires that searches and hearings be logged and reported by student group.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "exclusionary-discipline",
   "domain": "Suspension and expulsion",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "attendance",
    "graduation",
    "discipline",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Out-of-school suspension lowers the suspended student's own math and reading achievement (Philadelphia student panel with instrumental variables), and attending a school with a one standard deviation higher suspension rate raises the chance of adult arrest and incarceration by 15 to 20 percent (North Carolina boundary-change natural experiment). Reforms that ended suspension for minor nonviolent conduct raised achievement and attendance in New York City and Chicago, while reforms that cut suspensions without a replacement behavior system lowered achievement and raised absences for most students in Los Angeles and Philadelphia.",
   "effect": "Suspended student: lower math and reading scores; strict school: +15 to 20% adult arrest and incarceration; NYC reform: +0.05 SD math over three years; LAUSD reform: lower scores and GPA, more absences for most students; Chicago reform: about +1 day attendance per year.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Peer effects cut both ways. Pope and Zuo (2023) find Los Angeles' near-elimination of suspensions lowered test scores and GPAs and raised absences and teacher turnover for most students, with gains only for the highest-risk students. Lacoe and Steinberg (2018) find Philadelphia's 2012 reform did not cut total suspensions, and serious misconduct, truancy and achievement all moved the wrong way district-wide; the companion paper shows peers were unharmed only in schools that fully implemented the reform. Hwang and Domina (2021) find classmates' math scores rise when disruptive peers are suspended in a low-suspension district, and Carrell, Hoekstra and Kuka (2018) show one disruptive elementary classmate lowers peers' adult earnings 3 percent. Sorensen et al. (2022) find harsher principals do reduce reported minor misconduct, at the cost of more juvenile complaints and lower graduation for everyone in the building. The 2025 Campbell meta-analysis finds school-based programs reduce exclusion only modestly, and out-of-school suspension is the least responsive outcome. The lesson across studies is that removing suspension without an alternative system harms peers; pairing it with a tiered behavior system (see pbis-restorative) does not.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Bacher-Hicks A, Billings SB, Deming DJ (2024). The school-to-prison pipeline: long-run impacts of school suspensions on adult crime. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 16(4):165-193.",
     "doi": "10.1257/pol.20230052",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Attending a school with a one SD higher suspension rate raises adult arrest and incarceration 15 to 20 percent and lowers educational attainment, most for males and students of color.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The School-to-Prison Pipeline: Long-Run Impacts of School Suspensions on Adult Crime",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Bacher-Hicks",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 23,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_pol_20230052.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lacoe J, Steinberg MP (2019). Do suspensions affect student outcomes? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 41(1):34-62.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373718794897",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "A suspension lowers the suspended student's math and reading achievement (student fixed effects and IV); spillovers onto peers are very small.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Do Suspensions Affect Student Outcomes?",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Lacoe",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 132,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373718794897.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sorensen LC, Bushway SD, Gifford EJ (2022). Getting tough? The effects of discretionary principal discipline on student outcomes. Education Finance and Policy 17(2):255-284.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00341",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Principals who remove students more reduce reported minor misconduct but raise juvenile justice complaints and lower graduation for all students; racially biased principals widen Black-white gaps.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Getting Tough? The Effects of Discretionary Principal Discipline on Student Outcomes",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Sorensen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 55,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00341.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Craig AC, Martin DC (2025). Discipline reform, school culture and student achievement. The Economic Journal 136(675):1029-1065.",
     "doi": "10.1093/ej/ueaf081",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "NYC's 2012 ban on suspensions for nonviolent disorderly behavior raised math 0.05 SD and reading 0.03 SD over three years, with no trade-off for non-suspended students.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Discipline Reform, School Culture and Student Achievement",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "The Economic Journal",
      "first_author": "Craig",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 3,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1093_ej_ueaf081.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hinze-Pifer R, Sartain L (2018). Rethinking universal suspension for severe student behavior. Peabody Journal of Education 93(2):228-243.",
     "doi": "10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435051",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Chicago high schools that cut suspensions for severe infractions saw small test score gains and attendance gains beyond days no longer lost, without a decline in safety overall.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Rethinking Universal Suspension for Severe Student Behavior",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Peabody Journal of Education",
      "first_author": "Hinze-Pifer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 37,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_0161956X_2018_1435051.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Pope NG, Zuo GW (2023). Suspending suspensions: the education production consequences of school suspension policies. The Economic Journal 133(653):2025-2054.",
     "doi": "10.1093/ej/uead011",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: LAUSD's suspension reduction lowered test scores and GPAs, raised absences and teacher turnover for most students; highest-risk students gained.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Suspending Suspensions: The Education Production Consequences of School Suspension Policies*",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "The Economic Journal",
      "first_author": "Pope",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 12,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1093_ej_uead011.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lacoe J, Steinberg MP (2018). Rolling back zero tolerance: the effect of discipline policy reform on suspension usage and student outcomes. Peabody Journal of Education 93(2):207-227.",
     "doi": "10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435047",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: Philadelphia's 2012 reform left total suspensions unchanged while serious incidents, truancy and achievement worsened district-wide.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Rolling Back Zero Tolerance: The Effect of Discipline Policy Reform on Suspension Usage and Student Outcomes",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Peabody Journal of Education",
      "first_author": "Lacoe",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 64,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_0161956X_2018_1435047.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Steinberg MP, Lacoe J (2018). Reforming school discipline: school-level policy implementation and the consequences for suspended students and their peers. American Journal of Education 125(1):29-77.",
     "doi": "10.1086/699811",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Implementation matters: peers were unharmed in schools that fully eliminated classroom-disorder suspensions and harmed in schools that did not.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reforming School Discipline: School-Level Policy Implementation and the Consequences for Suspended Students and Their Peers",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "American Journal of Education",
      "first_author": "Steinberg",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 29,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_699811.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hwang N, Domina T (2021). Peer disruption and learning: links between suspensions and the educational achievement of non-suspended students. Education Finance and Policy 16(3):443-463.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00308",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: classmates' math achievement rises when disruptive peers are suspended, in a district where suspension is rare.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Peer Disruption and Learning: Links between Suspensions and the Educational Achievement of Non-Suspended Students",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Hwang",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 18,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00308.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Carrell SE, Hoekstra M, Kuka E (2018). The long-run effects of disruptive peers. American Economic Review 108(11):3377-3415.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aer.20160763",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence on the cost of disruption: one disruptive peer in an elementary class of 25 lowers classmates' earnings at ages 24 to 28 by 3 percent.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Long-Run Effects of Disruptive Peers",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "American Economic Review",
      "first_author": "Carrell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 268,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aer_20160763.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Noltemeyer AL, Ward RM, Mcloughlin C (2015). Relationship between school suspension and student outcomes: a meta-analysis. School Psychology Review 44(2):224-240.",
     "doi": "10.17105/spr-14-0008.1",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Across 34 studies, suspension is inversely related to achievement and positively related to dropout; out-of-school suspension shows the stronger relationships.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Relationship Between School Suspension and Student Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Noltemeyer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 455,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_17105_spr_14_0008_1.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rosenbaum J (2020). Educational and criminal justice outcomes 12 years after school suspension. Youth and Society 52(4):515-547.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0044118x17752208",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Matched on 60 pre-suspension variables, first-time suspended youth were less likely to earn diplomas or degrees and more likely to be arrested 12 years later.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Educational and Criminal Justice Outcomes 12 Years After School Suspension",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Youth & Society",
      "first_author": "Rosenbaum",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 174,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0044118x17752208.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Mittleman J (2018). A downward spiral? Childhood suspension and the path to juvenile arrest. Sociology of Education 91(3):183-204.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0038040718784603",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Childhood suspension more than doubles juvenile arrest risk; repeated school removal explains 52 percent of the association.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Downward Spiral? Childhood Suspension and the Path to Juvenile Arrest",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Sociology of Education",
      "first_author": "Mittleman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 131,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0038040718784603.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Valdebenito S, Gaffney H, Arosemena-Burbano F, et al. (2025). School-based interventions for reducing disciplinary school exclusion: an updated systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews 21(4).",
     "doi": "10.1002/cl2.70063",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "67 evaluations covering about 394,000 students: school-based interventions reduce exclusion modestly; out-of-school suspension is the least responsive outcome.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School-Based Interventions for Reducing Disciplinary School Exclusion. An Updated Systematic Review",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World",
      "first_author": "Valdebenito",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_cl2_70063.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Welsh RO, Little S (2018). The school discipline dilemma: a comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research 88(5):752-794.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654318791582",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Racial and income disparities in exclusion are not explained by misbehavior rates alone; school policies, practices and adult perceptions drive them.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The School Discipline Dilemma: A Comprehensive Review of Disparities and Alternative Approaches",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Welsh",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 442,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654318791582.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "American Academy of Pediatrics Council on School Health (2013). Out-of-school suspension and expulsion. Pediatrics 131(3):e1000-e1007.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2012-3932",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Professional standard: exclusion should be a last resort with alternatives in place and instruction continued.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Out-of-School Suspension and Expulsion",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 277,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2012_3932.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (2023). Student Discipline and School Climate in U.S. Public Schools, 2020-21 Civil Rights Data Collection.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ed.gov/media/document/crdc-discipline-school-climate-reportpdf-21409.pdf",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Federal data: students with disabilities were 17 percent of enrollment and 29 percent of students with an out-of-school suspension; Black boys were 8 percent of enrollment and 18 percent of suspensions and expulsions.",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Out-of-school suspensions per 100 students and instructional days lost, by building and by race, disability, sex and English-learner status (district student information system, reconciled to the Civil Rights Data Collection); share of suspensions for subjective or nonviolent categories such as defiance, disrespect and dress code; risk ratios for Black students and students with disabilities against white and non-disabled peers; attendance and achievement of non-suspended peers in buildings that reduce suspensions.",
   "standard": "Out-of-school suspension is limited to conduct that endangers persons or seriously disrupts instruction after documented alternatives, is barred for defiance, dress code, tardiness and attendance offenses, is capped in length, continues instruction during exclusion, and is reported annually with disparity ratios by building.",
   "model_clause": "Out-of-school suspension shall be used only when a student's presence poses a danger to persons or property or an ongoing threat of serious disruption to instruction, and only after the principal has documented the less restrictive interventions attempted under the district's tiered behavior system. No student shall be suspended out of school for defiance, disrespect, dress code, tardiness, truancy or other attendance-related conduct. A single out-of-school suspension shall not exceed five school days except for conduct for which state or federal law requires a longer exclusion. Every suspended student shall receive assignments and instruction during the exclusion and a re-entry meeting with a staff member on the first day back. Each principal shall report monthly to the Superintendent the number of suspensions, days lost and the offense category for each, by race, disability status, sex and English-learner status. The Superintendent shall publish to the Board by September 30 of each year a report for the prior school year showing suspensions and expulsions per 100 students by building and student group, the risk ratio for Black students and for students with disabilities, and the corrective plan for any building whose risk ratio exceeds 2.0. The Board shall review this policy against that report at a public meeting each October.",
   "red_flags": [
    "mandatory or automatic suspension for a first offense other than weapons or serious violence",
    "suspension listed as a consequence for defiance, disrespect, insubordination, profanity or dress code",
    "'zero tolerance' language applied beyond the federal firearm requirement",
    "no cap on the length of a suspension or on cumulative days per year",
    "no requirement to provide assignments or instruction during suspension",
    "no requirement to report suspensions by building or by student group",
    "'the principal may suspend for any conduct the principal deems disruptive'"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "suspension",
     "expulsion",
     "out-of-school suspension",
     "in-school suspension",
     "exclusion",
     "zero tolerance",
     "removal from school"
    ],
    "regex": "suspen(d|sion)|expel|expulsion|zero.tolerance|exclusionary|removal from (school|class)"
   },
   "law_notes": "Goss v. Lopez, 419 U.S. 565 (1975) requires notice and an opportunity to respond before any suspension of ten days or less, with immediate removal allowed only for danger or ongoing disruption and the hearing to follow as soon as practicable; longer exclusions require more formal process. The Gun-Free Schools Act (20 U.S.C. 7961) requires a one-year expulsion for bringing a firearm to school, modifiable case by case by the superintendent. IDEA (34 CFR 300.530) requires a manifestation determination before removals beyond ten school days for students with disabilities. Several states now restrict suspension for minor conduct by statute, for example California Education Code 48900(k) bars 'willful defiance' suspensions in grades K-8 and, through 2029, grades 9-12, and Illinois Public Act 99-0456 (2015) requires exhaustion of alternatives before exclusion.",
   "stakes": 5,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through the Director of Student Services (or equivalent), with each building principal responsible for compliance in that building",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent issues administrative regulations within 30 days that define the danger and serious-disruption thresholds, list the barred offense categories (defiance, disrespect, dress code, tardiness, truancy and other attendance conduct), and set the five-school-day cap with the state and federal exceptions.",
     "The Director of Student Services, with the data office, adds required fields to the student information system within 60 days so every out-of-school suspension records the offense category, days lost, documented prior interventions and the student's race, disability status, sex and English-learner status, reconciled to Civil Rights Data Collection definitions.",
     "Each principal, within 90 days, designates the staff member who will conduct first-day-back re-entry meetings and the process for sending assignments and instruction to suspended students.",
     "The Director of Student Services trains every principal and assistant principal within 90 days on Goss v. Lopez notice and hearing steps, the IDEA manifestation determination requirement before removals beyond ten school days, and the district's tiered behavior system documentation that must precede any suspension.",
     "The Superintendent sends the first monthly building suspension report to the Board within 90 days and identifies any building already using out-of-school suspension for the barred categories."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal submits the monthly report to the Superintendent showing suspensions, days lost and offense category by race, disability status, sex and English-learner status, and the Superintendent reviews it against the barred categories and the five-day cap.",
     "The Director of Student Services audits a sample of suspension files each semester to confirm that less restrictive interventions were documented before exclusion and that every suspended student received assignments and a re-entry meeting.",
     "The Superintendent publishes the first annual report to the Board by September 30 showing suspensions and expulsions per 100 students by building and student group, the risk ratio for Black students and for students with disabilities, and a corrective plan for any building with a risk ratio above 2.0.",
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board in year one on attendance and achievement of non-suspended students in buildings that reduce suspensions, so the Board can confirm the district is replacing suspension with a behavior system rather than only removing it."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent delivers the annual report by September 30 each year and the Board reviews this policy against it at a public meeting each October.",
     "Each building with a risk ratio above 2.0 operates under a written corrective plan with a named principal and quarterly check-ins with the Director of Student Services until the ratio falls to 2.0 or below.",
     "The data office reconciles district suspension figures to each Civil Rights Data Collection submission and reports any discrepancy to the Superintendent."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Out-of-school suspensions per 100 students and instructional days lost, by building and by race, disability, sex and English-learner status; share of suspensions for subjective or nonviolent categories (defiance, disrespect, dress code, tardiness, attendance); risk ratios for Black students and students with disabilities; attendance and achievement of non-suspended peers in buildings that reduce suspensions.",
    "baseline": "The prior school year's suspensions and expulsions per 100 students, days lost, offense category shares and risk ratios by building, drawn from the student information system and reconciled to the most recent Civil Rights Data Collection submission, as published in the first September 30 report.",
    "target": "Within one year of adoption, zero out-of-school suspensions recorded for defiance, disrespect, dress code, tardiness, truancy or other attendance conduct, and no single suspension exceeding five school days outside the state and federal exceptions; within 1 to 3 years, every building's risk ratio for Black students and for students with disabilities at or below 2.0, with suspensions per 100 students and days lost declining each year while attendance and achievement of non-suspended students in those buildings hold steady or improve.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric rate benchmark for suspensions per 100 students; the only numeric thresholds it supports are the 2.0 risk ratio and the five-school-day cap in the clause. Research reference points: NYC's reform that ended suspension for minor conduct raised math about 0.05 SD over three years and Chicago's raised attendance about one day per year, while reforms without a replacement behavior system lowered scores and raised absences in Los Angeles and Philadelphia.",
    "report": "Monthly principal reports to the Superintendent; an annual Superintendent report to the Board by September 30 covering the prior school year, published publicly, with the corrective plan for any building above a 2.0 risk ratio; Board review of the policy at a public meeting each October."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "suspension-limited-to-danger-or-serious-",
     "text": "The policy limits out-of-school suspension to conduct that endangers persons or seriously disrupts instruction.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "documented-alternatives-first",
     "text": "The policy requires documented alternatives to be tried before an out-of-school suspension is imposed.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "barred-for-minor-offenses",
     "text": "The policy bars out-of-school suspension for defiance, dress code, tardiness and attendance offenses.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "length-cap",
     "text": "The policy caps the length of an out-of-school suspension.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "instruction-continues",
     "text": "The policy requires instruction to continue for the student during the period of exclusion.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-report-disparity-by-building",
     "text": "The policy requires annual reporting of suspensions with disparity ratios by building.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "pbis-restorative",
   "domain": "Tiered positive behavior supports and restorative practices",
   "category": "discipline-and-climate",
   "outcomes": [
    "discipline",
    "climate",
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "attendance"
   ],
   "finding": "School-wide PBIS has the strongest evidence of any discipline framework: a meta-analysis of 29 group studies including seven RCTs finds small-to-medium reductions in discipline referrals and gains in achievement, and the five-year Maryland RCT found children in PBIS schools 33 percent less likely to receive an office referral with fewer suspensions. Restorative practices are promising but mixed: the Pittsburgh RCT cut days lost to suspension 36 percent against 18 percent in controls and narrowed racial gaps, but did not improve achievement and worsened it in grades 6 to 8, while the Maine middle school RCT found no significant intent-to-treat effects.",
   "effect": "PBIS: 33% lower odds of an office referral (Maryland RCT); meta-analytic effects small to medium on discipline and achievement. Restorative: suspension days -36% vs -18% control (Pittsburgh RCT), academic harm in grades 6 to 8, null in Maine.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "PBIS effects depend on implementation fidelity and are modest; most RCT evidence is from elementary schools, and a 2026 meta-analysis limited to children through grade 5 found no statistically significant pooled effect, with hints of larger effects in pre-K and kindergarten. PBIS is a framework rather than a curriculum, so naming it in policy without the tiered systems, data review and coaching does not reproduce the trial results. For restorative practices, the two RCTs disagree: Pittsburgh showed suspension reductions in elementary grades but no improvement in middle grades, for male students, for students with IEPs or for violent incidents, no reduction in arrests and lower middle-grade achievement; Maine showed no intent-to-treat effect, and reviews (Darling-Hammond et al. 2020; Lodi et al. 2021) rest mostly on non-experimental studies. Trauma-informed whole-school approaches had no eligible rigorous evidence as of a 2019 Campbell review. The honest position is PBIS as the spine, restorative practices as a complement for repair after incidents, and two or more years of coaching for either.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Lee A, Gage NA (2020). Updating and expanding systematic reviews and meta-analyses on the effects of school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports. Psychology in the Schools 57(5):783-804.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pits.22336",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "29 studies (7 RCTs, 22 quasi-experiments): statistically significant reductions in school discipline and increases in achievement; effect sizes small to medium.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Updating and expanding systematic reviews and meta‐analyses on the effects of school‐wide positive behavior interventions and supports",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Psychology in the Schools",
      "first_author": "Lee",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 163,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pits_22336.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bradshaw CP, Mitchell MM, Leaf PJ (2010). Examining the effects of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports on student outcomes: results from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 12(3):133-148.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1098300709334798",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Five-year group RCT in 37 Maryland elementary schools: significant reductions in suspensions and office discipline referrals in schools implementing with fidelity.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Student Outcomes",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions",
      "first_author": "Bradshaw",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 868,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1098300709334798.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bradshaw CP, Waasdorp TE, Leaf PJ (2012). Effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on child behavior problems. Pediatrics 130(5):e1136-e1145.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2012-0243",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Same trial, 12,344 children: better teacher-rated behavior, concentration and prosocial behavior; 33 percent lower odds of an office discipline referral.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Child Behavior Problems",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Bradshaw",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 474,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2012_0243.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Horner RH, Sugai G, Smolkowski K, et al. (2009). A randomized, wait-list controlled effectiveness trial assessing school-wide positive behavior support in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 11(3):133-144.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1098300709332067",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Hawaii and Illinois wait-list RCT: higher fidelity, improved perceived safety and third-grade reading; discipline data lacked experimental control.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Randomized, Wait-List Controlled Effectiveness Trial Assessing School-Wide Positive Behavior Support in Elementary Schools",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions",
      "first_author": "Horner",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 828,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1098300709332067.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lee J, Watson K, Yang HW (2026). Positive enough? A meta-analysis on positive behavior support for young children. Journal of Research in Childhood Education.",
     "doi": "10.1080/02568543.2025.2612590",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: 9 studies through grade 5, pooled effect not statistically significant; PBIS may work better in pre-K and kindergarten than in elementary grades.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Positive Enough? A Meta-Analysis on Positive Behavior Support for Young Children",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "Journal of Research in Childhood Education",
      "first_author": "Lee",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 0,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_02568543_2025_2612590.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Augustine CH, Engberg J, Grimm GE, et al. (2018). Can Restorative Practices Improve School Climate and Curb Suspensions? An Evaluation of the Impact of Restorative Practices in a Mid-Sized Urban School District. RAND Corporation, RR-2840-DOJ.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RR2840",
     "url": "https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2840.html",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Pittsburgh, 44 schools: suspension days fell 36 percent vs 18 percent in controls, disparities narrowed, teacher-rated climate improved; achievement worsened in grades 6 to 8, no effect on arrests or on middle-grade suspensions.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Can Restorative Practices Improve School Climate and Curb Suspensions? An Evaluation of the Impact of Restorative Practices in a Mid-Sized Urban School District",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Augustine",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 177,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RR2840.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Acosta J, Chinman M, Ebener P, et al. (2019). Evaluation of a whole-school change intervention: findings from a two-year cluster-randomized trial of the Restorative Practices Intervention. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48(5):876-890.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10964-019-01013-2",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "13 Maine middle schools, 2,771 students: no significant intent-to-treat effects; students' self-reported experience of restorative practices predicted better climate and connectedness.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Evaluation of a Whole-School Change Intervention: Findings from a Two-Year Cluster-Randomized Trial of the Restorative Practices Intervention",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Youth and Adolescence",
      "first_author": "Acosta",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 166,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Darling-Hammond S, Fronius TA, Sutherland H, et al. (2020). Effectiveness of restorative justice in US K-12 schools: a review of quantitative research. Contemporary School Psychology 24(3):295-308.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s40688-020-00290-0",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Quantitative studies associate restorative practices with lower suspensions and improved climate; most designs are non-experimental.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness of Restorative Justice in US K-12 Schools: a Review of Quantitative Research",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Contemporary School Psychology",
      "first_author": "Darling-Hammond",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 101,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lodi E, Perrella L, Lepri GL, Scarpa ML, Patrizi P (2022). Use of restorative justice and restorative practices at school: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19(1):96.",
     "doi": "10.3390/ijerph19010096",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "34 studies 2010 to 2021: restorative practices can improve climate and reduce suspensions and conflict, but direct causal evidence remains limited.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Use of Restorative Justice and Restorative Practices at School: A Systematic Literature Review",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health",
      "first_author": "Lodi",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 186,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3390_ijerph19010096.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Valdebenito S, Gaffney H, Arosemena-Burbano F, et al. (2025). School-based interventions for reducing disciplinary school exclusion: an updated systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews 21(4).",
     "doi": "10.1002/cl2.70063",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "67 evaluations: school-based interventions reduce exclusion modestly; the effect is smaller for out-of-school suspension than for in-school removal.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School-Based Interventions for Reducing Disciplinary School Exclusion. An Updated Systematic Review",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World",
      "first_author": "Valdebenito",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_cl2_70063.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Maynard BR, Farina A, Dell NA, Kelly MS (2019). Effects of trauma-informed approaches in schools: a systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews 15(1-2):e1018.",
     "doi": "10.1002/cl2.1018",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Honest limit: no study of whole-school trauma-informed approaches met inclusion criteria; treat trauma-informed practice as a frame, not an evidence-based program.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of trauma-informed approaches in schools: A systematic review",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World",
      "first_author": "Maynard",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 265,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_cl2_1018.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kellam SG, Brown CH, Poduska JM, et al. (2008). Effects of a universal classroom behavior management program in first and second grades on young adult behavioral, psychiatric, and social outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 95(Suppl 1):S5-S28.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.004",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2008,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Good Behavior Game, a Tier 1 classroom practice: classroom-randomized Baltimore trial with reduced substance use disorders and antisocial personality disorder at ages 19 to 21, strongest for initially aggressive boys.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of a universal classroom behavior management program in first and second grades on young adult behavioral, psychiatric, and social outcomes",
      "year": 2008,
      "journal": "Drug and Alcohol Dependence",
      "first_author": "Kellam",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 431,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Office discipline referrals and out-of-school suspensions per 100 students by building and student group (student information system); annual fidelity score on a recognized instrument (Tiered Fidelity Inventory, with 70 percent or higher at Tier 1 as the benchmark); share of buildings with functioning Tier 2 and Tier 3 teams; student and teacher climate survey results; referral risk ratios for Black students and students with disabilities.",
   "standard": "Every building operates a school-wide tiered behavior support system named in policy, with a leadership team, taught expectations, data review at least monthly, Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions, annual fidelity assessment with a recognized instrument, and public reporting of referrals, exclusions and fidelity by building; restorative practices are adopted as a complement with the same reporting.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall operate Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), a school-wide multi-tiered system of behavior support, in every school building. Each principal shall maintain a building leadership team that meets at least monthly to review discipline data, shall ensure that school-wide behavioral expectations are taught to all students each semester, and shall maintain functioning Tier 2 and Tier 3 teams that provide Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions, including function-based behavior intervention plans, for students whose behavior does not respond to Tier 1 supports. The district shall adopt restorative practices, including restorative conferences and circles, in every building as a complement to the tiered system and not as a substitute for it. Each school shall complete the Tiered Fidelity Inventory or another recognized fidelity instrument approved by the Board by May 1 each year, and the Superintendent shall provide coaching to any school scoring below 70 percent at Tier 1. The Superintendent shall budget for at least two years of external coaching for any school newly adopting the system. The Superintendent shall report to the Board, and shall publish on the district website, by September 30 each year, for the prior school year and by building and by race, disability status and sex, office discipline referrals, out-of-school suspensions and other exclusions per 100 students, fidelity scores, and the use and outcomes of restorative conferences and other restorative practices, and shall present a corrective plan for any building whose referral risk ratio for Black students or students with disabilities exceeds 2.0.",
   "red_flags": [
    "no tiered behavior framework named anywhere in the discipline policy",
    "a 'discipline matrix' of consequences with no mention of prevention, teaching expectations or Tier 2 and 3 supports",
    "'PBIS' named without a fidelity measure, a team, data review or coaching",
    "restorative practices named as the sole discipline approach with no tiered system behind them",
    "'schools are encouraged to' language with no requirement or reporting",
    "no reporting of referrals or exclusions by building or student group"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "PBIS",
     "positive behavior",
     "positive behavioral interventions",
     "MTSS",
     "multi-tiered",
     "restorative",
     "restorative justice",
     "restorative practices",
     "tiered",
     "behavior intervention plan",
     "functional behavior assessment",
     "SEL"
    ],
    "regex": "PBIS|positive behavio(u)?r(al)? (interventions|supports?)|MTSS|multi.?tiered|restorative|tier(ed)? (1|2|3|one|two|three)|behavio(u)?r intervention plan|functional behavio(u)?r(al)? assessment"
   },
   "law_notes": "IDEA regulations require that when a child's behavior impedes learning the IEP team consider, and where necessary include, positive behavioral interventions and supports (34 CFR 300.324(a)(2)(i)); the Department's August 1, 2016 Dear Colleague Letter explains that duty. ESSA (20 U.S.C. 7118) allows Title IV-A funds for school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Some states require tiered supports or restorative alternatives before exclusion, for example Illinois Public Act 99-0456 (2015), and California Education Code 48900.5 requires that other means of correction be documented before suspension for most offenses.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "model_clause_previous": "The district shall implement a school-wide multi-tiered system of positive behavioral interventions and supports in every school. Each principal shall maintain a building leadership team that meets at least monthly to review discipline data, shall ensure that school-wide behavioral expectations are taught to all students each semester, and shall provide Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions, including function-based behavior intervention plans, for students whose behavior does not respond to Tier 1 supports. The district may adopt restorative practices, including restorative conferences and circles, as a complement to the tiered system and not as a substitute for it. Each school shall complete the Tiered Fidelity Inventory or another Board-approved fidelity instrument by May 1 each year, and the Superintendent shall provide coaching to any school scoring below 70 percent at Tier 1. The Superintendent shall budget for at least two years of external coaching for any school newly adopting the system. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by September 30 each year, for the prior school year and by building and by race, disability status and sex, office discipline referrals and out-of-school suspensions per 100 students, fidelity scores, and the use and outcomes of restorative conferences, and shall present a corrective plan for any building whose referral risk ratio for Black students or students with disabilities exceeds 2.0.",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through a district PBIS coordinator and each building principal",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent names a district PBIS coordinator and confirms that each principal has formed a building leadership team that will meet at least monthly to review discipline data.",
     "The district data office configures the student information system to report office discipline referrals and out-of-school suspensions per 100 students by building, race, disability status and sex, and computes a baseline referral risk ratio for Black students and students with disabilities in each building.",
     "The Superintendent identifies which buildings have no functioning tiered system and secures at least two years of external coaching for each of them in the next budget cycle, citing Title IV-A eligibility under ESSA for the funding request.",
     "Each principal schedules the Tiered Fidelity Inventory or another Board-approved instrument for completion by May 1 and reports the date to the Superintendent.",
     "The Superintendent selects a restorative practices training provider and sets a calendar for staff training in restorative conferences and circles in every building."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal ensures school-wide behavioral expectations are taught to all students each semester and documents the dates and materials used.",
     "Each principal stands up Tier 2 and Tier 3 teams and ensures that students who do not respond to Tier 1 supports receive function-based behavior intervention plans, coordinated with IEP teams where 34 CFR 300.324(a)(2)(i) applies.",
     "Each school completes the Tiered Fidelity Inventory by May 1, and the Superintendent assigns coaching to every school scoring below 70 percent at Tier 1.",
     "By September 30 the Superintendent reports to the Board and publishes on the district website the referral, exclusion, fidelity and restorative practice data by building and student group, with a corrective plan for any building whose referral risk ratio for Black students or students with disabilities exceeds 2.0."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "Building leadership teams review discipline data at least monthly and adjust Tier 1, Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports based on what the data show.",
     "The Superintendent repeats the annual fidelity assessment, the September 30 public report and corrective plans each year, and administers student and teacher climate surveys to accompany the report.",
     "The district PBIS coordinator monitors achievement in grades 6 to 8 in buildings using restorative practices and reports any decline to the Board so that restorative practices remain a complement to, not a substitute for, the tiered system."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Office discipline referrals and out-of-school suspensions per 100 students by building and student group; annual Tier 1 fidelity score on the Tiered Fidelity Inventory; share of buildings with functioning Tier 2 and Tier 3 teams; referral risk ratios for Black students and students with disabilities; student and teacher climate survey results.",
    "baseline": "Prior school year referrals and suspensions per 100 students by building and student group from the student information system, the first-year Tiered Fidelity Inventory score for each building, and the current count of buildings with functioning Tier 2 and Tier 3 teams, all established in the first 90 days.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, every building completes a fidelity assessment and has functioning Tier 2 and Tier 3 teams; within 3 years, every building scores 70 percent or higher at Tier 1, office referrals and out-of-school suspensions per 100 students decline from baseline in every building, and no building has a referral risk ratio above 2.0 for Black students or students with disabilities.",
    "benchmark": "Tiered Fidelity Inventory score of 70 percent or higher at Tier 1 is the recognized fidelity benchmark; referral risk ratio of 2.0 is the policy's corrective-plan trigger. For outcomes, the Maryland RCT found 33 percent lower odds of an office referral in PBIS schools and the Pittsburgh RCT found suspension days down 36 percent against 18 percent in controls; these are reference points from the research, not district targets, and the entry gives no numeric benchmark for the size of a district's own decline.",
    "report": "Superintendent reports to the Board and publishes on the district website by September 30 each year, for the prior school year, by building and by race, disability status and sex, including fidelity scores, restorative practice use and outcomes, and a corrective plan for any building over the 2.0 risk ratio threshold."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "tiered-system-named",
     "text": "The policy requires every building to operate a school-wide tiered behavior support system that the policy names.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "team-expectations-tiers",
     "text": "The policy requires each building to have a leadership team, taught expectations, and Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "monthly-data-review",
     "text": "The policy requires each building to review behavior data at least monthly.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-fidelity",
     "text": "The policy requires an annual fidelity assessment of the system using a recognized instrument.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "public-reporting-by-building",
     "text": "The policy requires public reporting of referrals, exclusions and fidelity results by building.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "restorative-complement",
     "text": "The policy adopts restorative practices as a complement to the tiered system with the same public reporting.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "attendance-family-messaging",
   "domain": "Attendance messaging to families",
   "category": "family-and-community",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "achievement"
   ],
   "finding": "Large randomized trials show that plain, personalized letters and text messages telling families how many days their child has missed, and why it matters, reduce chronic absence by about 10 to 15 percent (2 to 7 percentage points) at a cost of roughly $6 to $9 per student or $5 to $10 per added day of attendance. Supportive, simply worded messages outperform legalistic ones, and automated alerts about missed classes and assignments also cut course failure in secondary school.",
   "effect": "Mailings: chronic absence -10% (K-12) to -15% (K-5); texts: -2 to -7 points in grades 3-5, -20% in Head Start; supportive truancy notice: 40% more effective than standard notice; cost $5 to $10 per added day",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Effects on attendance are real but modest: a 10 percent reduction in chronic absence leaves nine in ten chronically absent students still absent, and the adaptive-text trial found no achievement gain after one year. Message content matters less than expected (benefit-framed and consequence-framed texts performed alike), while delivery details matter a lot: an opt-in default for an alert platform produced near-zero take-up compared with opt-out (Bergman, Lasky-Fink and Rogers 2020). Nudges that worked in district trials have failed when scaled by states or national organizations in another domain (FAFSA completion), so district-level ownership and data linkage appear to be preconditions. Check & Connect mentoring produced larger per-student gains than letters but at roughly 50 times the cost per added day, so messaging is a complement to, not a substitute for, case management for the most absent students.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Rogers T, Feller A (2018). Reducing student absences at scale by targeting parents' misbeliefs. Nature Human Behaviour 2(5):335-342.",
     "doi": "10.1038/s41562-018-0328-1",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0328-1",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "five mailings over a year to 28,080 Philadelphia households reporting the child's total absences cut chronic absence about 10 percent; the simplest total-absences letter worked best; about $6 per added day",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reducing student absences at scale by targeting parents’ misbeliefs",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Nature Human Behaviour",
      "first_author": "Rogers",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 187,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Robinson CD, Lee MG, Dearing E, Rogers T (2018). Reducing student absenteeism in the early grades by targeting parental beliefs. American Educational Research Journal 55(6):1163-1192.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831218772274",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218772274",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "K-5 mailings in 10 districts targeting parents' beliefs about early attendance decreased chronic absenteeism by 15 percent",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reducing Student Absenteeism in the Early Grades by Targeting Parental Beliefs",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Robinson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 144,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831218772274.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lasky-Fink J, Robinson CD, Chang HN, Rogers T (2021). Using behavioral insights to improve school administrative communications: the case of truancy notifications. Educational Researcher 50(7):442-450.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189X211000749",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211000749",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "N = 131,312; truancy notices rewritten in simple language emphasizing parental efficacy reduced absences 0.07 days in the following month, 40 percent more than the standard legalistic notice; sent in five languages",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Using Behavioral Insights to Improve School Administrative Communications: The Case of Truancy Notifications",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Lasky-Fink",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 23,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189X211000749.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Heppen JB, Kurki A, Brown S (2020). Can texting parents improve attendance in elementary school? A test of an adaptive messaging strategy. NCEE 2020-006. Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/use-work/resource-library/report/evaluation-report/can-texting-parents-improve-attendance-elementary-school-test-adaptive-messaging-strategy",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "about 26,000 grade 3-5 students; every text version reduced chronic absence by 2 to 7 points (larger for prior high-absence students); no achievement effect; $6.90 to $8.53 per student",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bergman P, Chan EW (2021). Leveraging parents through low-cost technology: the impact of high-frequency information on student achievement. Journal of Human Resources 56(1):125-158.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.56.1.1118-9837R1",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.56.1.1118-9837R1",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "automated weekly texts about absences and missed assignments in 22 middle and high schools reduced course failures 27 percent and raised class attendance 12 percent; no state test effect; variable cost about $63 for 32,000 messages",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Leveraging Parents through Low-Cost Technology",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Bergman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 68,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_56_1_1118_9837R1.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kalil A, Mayer SE, Gallegos S (2021). Using behavioral insights to increase attendance at subsidized preschool programs: the Show Up to Grow Up intervention. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 163:65-79.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.11.002",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.11.002",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "741 Chicago Head Start families; three to four texts a week for 18 weeks raised daily attendance and cut chronic absence about 20 percent, most for the lowest attenders",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Using behavioral insights to increase attendance at subsidized preschool programs: The Show Up to Grow Up intervention",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes",
      "first_author": "Kalil",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 44,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Smythe-Leistico K, Page LC (2018). Connect-Text: leveraging text-message communication to mitigate chronic absenteeism and improve parental engagement in the earliest years of schooling. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 23(1-2):139-152.",
     "doi": "10.1080/10824669.2018.1434658",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2018.1434658",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "two-way kindergarten texting pilot: chronic absence 13 percent versus 24 percent in a synthetic comparison school; three-quarters of outreach recipients replied",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Connect-Text: Leveraging Text-Message Communication to Mitigate Chronic Absenteeism and Improve Parental Engagement in the Earliest Years of Schooling",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR)",
      "first_author": "Smythe-Leistico",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 79,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_10824669_2018_1434658.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bergman P, Lasky-Fink J, Rogers T (2020). Simplification and defaults affect adoption and impact of technology, but decision makers do not realize it. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 158:66-79.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.04.001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.04.001",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "N = 6,976; standard opt-in enrollment for a parent alert platform produced extremely low take-up; opt-out defaults drove adoption and impact, and administrators did not anticipate the difference",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Simplification and defaults affect adoption and impact of technology, but decision makers do not realize it",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes",
      "first_author": "Bergman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 35,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Rogers T (2015). The underutilized potential of teacher-to-parent communication: evidence from a field experiment. Economics of Education Review 47:49-63.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.04.001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.04.001",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "weekly one-sentence teacher messages to parents during summer credit recovery cut the share of students failing to earn credit by 41 percent",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The underutilized potential of teacher-to-parent communication: Evidence from a field experiment",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 213,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Guryan J, Christenson S, Cureton A, Lai I, Ludwig J, Schwarz C, Shirey E, Turner MC (2021). The effect of mentoring on school attendance and academic outcomes: a randomized evaluation of the Check & Connect program. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 40(3):841-882.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22264",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22264",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "cost comparison: intensive mentoring gained more days per student but at far higher cost per day than letters, pointing to messaging as the first tier",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Mentoring on School Attendance and Academic Outcomes: A Randomized Evaluation of the Check & Connect Program",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Guryan",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 38,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22264.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bird KA, Castleman BL, Denning JT, Goodman J, Lamberton C, Rosinger KO (2021). Nudging at scale: experimental evidence from FAFSA completion campaigns. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 183:105-128.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jebo.2020.12.022",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.12.022",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "counter-evidence from another domain: nudges that worked locally produced null effects when delivered at state and national scale by outside organizations",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Nudging at scale: Experimental evidence from FAFSA completion campaigns",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization",
      "first_author": "Bird",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 110,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Eklund K, Burns MK, Oyen K, DeMarchena S, McCollom EM (2022). Addressing chronic absenteeism in schools: a meta-analysis of evidence-based interventions. School Psychology Review 51(1):95-111.",
     "doi": "10.1080/2372966X.2020.1789436",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1789436",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "context: attendance interventions as a class have small pooled effects, so a 10 to 15 percent reduction from messaging is in line with the field and inexpensive relative to alternatives",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Addressing Chronic Absenteeism in Schools: A Meta-Analysis of Evidence-Based Interventions",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Eklund",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 75,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_2372966X_2020_1789436.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of enrolled students whose family received at least one personalized absence message (days missed to date, in the family's preferred language) within 10 school days of reaching 5 percent absence, from the student information system messaging log; chronic absence rate by school and subgroup; and family contact information completeness (percent of students with a working phone number or address on file).",
   "standard": "Policy requires the district to send every family a plain-language, personalized absence update (days missed, why it matters, whom to call) at least when a student reaches 5 and 10 percent absence and again at each term, by mail and text in the family's preferred language, with supportive rather than legalistic wording, and to maintain current family contact information; legal truancy notices required by state law must use the same plain-language format.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall maintain for every student at least one verified family mailing address and one verified mobile number, confirmed at enrollment and at the start of each school year, and shall record each family's preferred language for written and spoken communication. The Superintendent shall operate an attendance messaging system that sends each family a personalized absence message, by mail or text in the family's preferred language, when the student has missed 5 percent of enrolled days, again at 10 percent, and at the end of each grading period thereafter. Each message shall state the number of days the student has missed to date, compare it with typical attendance, explain in plain language why regular attendance matters, and name a school staff member with a phone number to contact for help. Messages shall be written at or below a sixth-grade reading level, shall not threaten fines, prosecution or exclusion, and shall be designed so that families are enrolled by default and may opt out. Any truancy notification required by state law shall be issued in the same plain-language format with the required legal content appended. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 31 each year the share of families with verified contact information, the number of absence messages sent by language, the share of students reaching 5 percent absence whose family was messaged within 10 school days, and the chronic absence rate by school and subgroup for the prior year.",
   "red_flags": [
    "absence letters sent only after the statutory truancy threshold, with no earlier personalized notice",
    "notices that cite statute, fines or court action as the opening message",
    "family communication only in English, or translation 'where feasible' with no named responsibility",
    "parent portal or alert system that requires families to opt in with no default enrollment",
    "no requirement to verify family phone numbers and addresses each year",
    "messages that give a school-wide attendance exhortation but not the child's own days missed"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "attendance letter",
     "attendance notice",
     "truancy notice",
     "notify parents",
     "parent notification",
     "text message",
     "absence notification",
     "days missed",
     "automated calls",
     "robocall"
    ],
    "regex": "(attendance|truancy|absence) (letter|notice|notification)|notif(y|ication) (of )?(the )?parent|text messag|automated (call|message)"
   },
   "law_notes": "Most state compulsory attendance laws require written notice to parents after a set number of unexcused absences (for example California Education Code 48260.5, Texas Education Code 25.095); these notices are the legally required floor and the evidence favors rewriting them in plain, supportive language rather than adding a separate system. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act and the Equal Educational Opportunities Act require that notices reach limited-English families in a language they understand. The TCPA permits informational school texts to numbers families provide.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Student Services as day-to-day lead and the student information system administrator as technical lead",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The student information system administrator runs a contact data audit within 30 days and reports to the Superintendent the percent of students with a verified mailing address, a verified mobile number, and a recorded preferred language.",
     "The Director of Student Services drafts the 5 percent, 10 percent, and end-of-term message templates at or below a sixth-grade reading level, stating days missed, a comparison with typical attendance, why attendance matters, and a named staff contact with phone number, and has them translated into each language spoken by at least one family.",
     "District legal counsel reviews the state-required truancy notice and rewrites it in the same plain-language format with the required legal content appended, within 60 days.",
     "Each principal names one staff member per school as the attendance contact whose phone number appears in messages, and the Superintendent confirms the list within 60 days.",
     "The student information system administrator configures automated triggers at 5 percent and 10 percent absence and at each grading period, with default enrollment and an opt-out flag, and tests them on a sample of records within 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "School registrars verify each family's address, mobile number, and preferred language at enrollment and again at the start of the school year, and the student information system administrator reports completeness to the Superintendent at 180 days.",
     "The Director of Student Services launches messaging districtwide by the first grading period and reviews the messaging log monthly to confirm that families are messaged within 10 school days of a student reaching 5 percent absence.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first report to the Board by October 31 covering verified contact information, messages sent by language, timeliness at the 5 percent trigger, and chronic absence by school and subgroup."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 31 each year on the four measures named in the clause.",
     "The Director of Student Services reviews the message templates and translation list each summer and removes any wording that threatens fines, prosecution, or exclusion.",
     "The student information system administrator re-runs the contact data audit at the start of each school year and flags schools with incomplete records to their principals."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of students reaching 5 percent absence whose family received a personalized absence message in the family's preferred language within 10 school days, from the student information system messaging log; chronic absence rate by school and subgroup; and percent of students with a verified phone number or address on file.",
    "baseline": "Prior-year chronic absence rate by school and subgroup from district records, the contact data audit completed in the first 30 days, and the messaging timeliness rate from the first full year of operation.",
    "target": "Messaging timeliness at the 5 percent trigger rises each year from the first-year rate; verified contact information coverage rises each year from the 30-day audit; and the district chronic absence rate falls from the prior-year baseline within 1 to 3 years, with a reduction of about 10 percent (K-12) to 15 percent (K-5) as the reference range from the evidence.",
    "benchmark": "Randomized trials: mailings reduced chronic absence about 10 percent (K-12) to 15 percent (K-5); texts reduced it 2 to 7 percentage points in grades 3 to 5 and 20 percent in Head Start; supportive truancy notices were 40 percent more effective than standard notices; cost about $6 to $9 per student or $5 to $10 per added day of attendance. The entry gives no numeric benchmark for messaging timeliness or contact information completeness.",
    "report": "Superintendent's annual report to the Board by October 31, covering the prior year, with the four measures broken out by school, subgroup, and language."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "personalized-absence-update",
     "text": "The policy requires sending every family a personalized absence update stating days missed, why it matters, and whom to call.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "thresholds-and-terms",
     "text": "The policy requires absence updates at least when a student reaches 5 and 10 percent absence and again at each term.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "mail-text-preferred-language",
     "text": "The policy requires absence updates to be sent by mail and text in the family's preferred language.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "supportive-wording",
     "text": "The policy requires absence updates to use plain-language, supportive wording rather than legalistic wording.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "current-contact-information",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to maintain current family contact information.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "truancy-notices-plain-language",
     "text": "The policy requires legal truancy notices required by state law to use the same plain-language format.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "community-schools",
   "domain": "Community schools and integrated student supports",
   "category": "family-and-community",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "discipline",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Quasi-experimental evaluations of the two largest community school systems find consistent gains in attendance and behavior and smaller, slower gains in achievement: New York City's 2014 initiative cut chronic absence by 7 to 8 percentage points, raised graduation 4.9 points over three years and credits earned by 1.3 per year, reduced disciplinary incidents in elementary and middle schools, and raised grade 3-8 math by 0.13 SD only in year three with no ELA effect; California's 2022 grantee cohort cut chronic absence about 30 percent and suspensions about 15 percent relative to matched schools with math +0.06 SD and ELA +0.05 SD in the first year. Longitudinal studies of City Connects, the best-studied integrated-support model, show higher middle-school test scores and roughly half the odds of high school dropout for students served in elementary school.",
   "effect": "NYC: chronic absence -7.3 points (K-8) and -8.3 points (HS), graduation +4.9 points, credits +1.3/year, math +0.13 SD (year 3 only), ELA null; California: chronic absence -30%, suspensions -15%, math +0.06 SD, ELA +0.05 SD; City Connects: dropout 9.2% vs 16.6%; Michigan caseworkers: chronic absence -8%",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "No randomized trial of the whole-school community schools model exists; the NYC and California estimates rest on matched-comparison designs that cannot rule out selection into the initiative, and the California window is one year. The one RCT of a core component, Communities In Schools case management (24 secondary schools, two years), found no effect on attendance, achievement, progress or behavior despite higher service receipt, improving only attitudes and relationships; MDRC's quasi-experimental study of the whole-school CIS model found attendance gains in elementary but not secondary schools. Heers et al. (2016), reviewing the literature, concluded that causal evidence for community schools as such is lacking and that extracurricular activities do not appear to raise achievement. Achievement effects where found are small (0.05 to 0.13 SD) and arrive after two to three years; ELA effects are repeatedly null. Costs run from a few hundred dollars per student for a coordinator to several thousand with wraparound services, and the Michigan material-needs program shows effects concentrated in schools with higher dosage and, uncomfortably, in wealthier and less diverse schools.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Johnston WR, Engberg J, Opper IM, Sontag-Padilla L, Xenakis L (2020). Illustrating the promise of community schools: an assessment of the impact of the New York City Community Schools Initiative. RR-3245-NYCCEO. RAND Corporation.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RR3245",
     "url": "https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR3245.html",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "community schools matched to comparison schools on pre-initiative outcomes and characteristics, 2015-16 to 2017-18: chronic absence down in all three years for all grade bands, on-time progression up, graduation up in two of three years, credits +1.3 per year, disciplinary incidents down in K-8 only, math +0.13 SD in year three, ELA not significant",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Illustrating the Promise of Community Schools: An Assessment of the Impact of the New York City Community Schools Initiative",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Johnston",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 22,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RR3245.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Swain W, Leung-Gagne M, Maier A, Rubinstein CF (2025). Community schools impact on student outcomes: evidence from California. Learning Policy Institute.",
     "doi": "10.54300/541.498",
     "url": "https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/ca-community-schools-impact-student-outcomes-report",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "458 first-cohort CCSPP grantee schools versus matched non-grantees, 2018-19 to 2023-24: chronic absence reductions about 30 percent larger, suspensions about 15 percent lower, math +0.06 SD, ELA +0.05 SD (significant only for some subgroups), largest gains for Black students and English learners, strongest at elementary level",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Community schools impact on student outcomes: Evidence from California",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Swain",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 3,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_54300_541_498.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Heers M, Van Klaveren C, Groot W, Maassen van den Brink H (2016). Community schools: what we know and what we need to know. Review of Educational Research 86(4):1016-1051.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654315627365",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315627365",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: sound causal evidence on community schools is lacking; parental involvement and inter-agency cooperation correlate with achievement, extracurriculars relate to lower dropout but not achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Community Schools",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Heers",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 93,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654315627365.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Maier A, Daniel J, Oakes J, Lam L (2017). Community schools as an effective school improvement strategy: a review of the evidence. Learning Policy Institute and National Education Policy Center.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/community-schools-effective-school-improvement-report",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "143 studies reviewed; evidence is strongest for integrated student supports, expanded learning time and family engagement, weakest for collaborative leadership; sets the four-pillar definition used in state programs",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Walsh ME, Madaus GF, Raczek AE, Dearing E, Foley C, An C, Lee-St. John TJ, Beaton A (2014). A new model for student support in high-poverty urban elementary schools: effects on elementary and middle school academic outcomes. American Educational Research Journal 51(4):704-737.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831214541669",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541669",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "City Connects, 7,948 K-5 students 1999-2009, propensity-score adjusted: higher report card grades and higher middle school ELA and math test scores than comparison students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A New Model for Student Support in High-Poverty Urban Elementary Schools",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Walsh",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 64,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831214541669.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lee-St. John TJ, Walsh ME, Raczek AE, Vuilleumier CE, Foley C, Heberle A, Sibley E, Dearing E (2018). The long-term impact of systemic student support in elementary school: reducing high school dropout. AERA Open 4(4).",
     "doi": "10.1177/2332858418799085",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418799085",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "894 City Connects students versus 10,200 comparison students, propensity-weighted event history: dropout 9.2 percent versus 16.6 percent, about half the odds",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Long-Term Impact of Systemic Student Support in Elementary School: Reducing High School Dropout",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Lee-St. John",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 66,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2332858418799085.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dearing E, Walsh ME, Sibley E, Lee-St. John T, Foley C, Raczek AE (2016). Can community and school-based supports improve the achievement of first-generation immigrant children attending high-poverty schools? Child Development 87(3):883-897.",
     "doi": "10.1111/cdev.12507",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12507",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "City Connects closed much of the achievement gap for first-generation immigrant children in high-poverty schools",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Can Community and School-Based Supports Improve the Achievement of First-Generation Immigrant Children Attending High-Poverty Schools?",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Child Development",
      "first_author": "Dearing",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 44,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_cdev_12507.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sokol R, Degli Esposti M, Victor BG, Kernsmith P, Medina Del Toro V, Heinze J, Portugal J, Grinnell R, Gernaat E (2025). A school-based material needs intervention for chronic absenteeism: a state-wide staggered interrupted time series analysis. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 80(3):174-181.",
     "doi": "10.1136/jech-2025-224567",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2025-224567",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "state caseworkers placed in 160 Michigan schools reduced chronic absence 7.9 percent, about 21 students per school per year, with larger effects at higher dosage",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A school-based material needs intervention for chronic absenteeism: a state-wide staggered interrupted time series analysis",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health",
      "first_author": "Sokol",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_jech_2025_224567.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Parise L, Corrin W, Granito K, Haider Z, Somers MA, Cerna O (2017). Two years of case management: final findings from the Communities In Schools random assignment evaluation. MDRC.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.mdrc.org/work/publications/two-years-case-management",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: in 24 secondary schools, students randomly assigned to CIS case management received more services but showed no improvement in attendance, achievement, progress or behavior; attitudes toward school and relationships improved",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Biag M, Castrechini S (2016). Coordinated strategies to help the whole child: examining the contributions of full-service community schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 21(3):157-173.",
     "doi": "10.1080/10824669.2016.1172231",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2016.1172231",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "in Redwood City full-service community schools, students who participated in multiple coordinated services had better attendance and achievement trajectories than peers with single or no services",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Coordinated Strategies to Help the Whole Child: Examining the Contributions of Full-Service Community Schools",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR)",
      "first_author": "Biag",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 54,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_10824669_2016_1172231.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "For each designated community school: presence of a full-time coordinator and a signed lead-partner agreement; share of students with an identified need who received a service within 30 days (needs assessment and service log); chronic absence, suspension and course-passing rates compared with matched district schools, reported annually; per-pupil cost of the strategy.",
   "standard": "Policy defines the community school strategy by its four pillars (integrated student supports, expanded learning time, family and community engagement, collaborative leadership), requires each designated school to have a funded full-time coordinator, an annual needs assessment, a universal student support review, and a lead partner agreement, and requires annual reporting of attendance, discipline and achievement against matched comparison schools.",
   "model_clause": "The Board adopts the community school strategy, defined by four pillars: integrated student supports, expanded learning time, family and community engagement, and collaborative leadership. The Board shall designate community schools from among schools in which 60 percent or more of students are eligible for free or reduced-price meals, English learners or in foster care, shall fund at each designated school a full-time community school coordinator employed by the district or a lead partner, and shall approve for each designated school a signed agreement with a lead partner. Each designated school shall conduct a needs and assets assessment of students, families and the neighborhood by October 31 of its first year and by October 31 each year thereafter, shall review every enrolled student at least once a year to identify academic, health, social and material needs, and shall record in the student support system the needs identified and the service connected, with a target that 90 percent of identified needs are matched to a service within 30 school days. Each designated school shall have a site leadership team including the principal, the coordinator, at least two teachers, at least two parents and a community partner that meets monthly. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by December 31 each year, for each designated school: full-time coordinator staffing, the signed lead partner agreement, the share of students with an identified need who received a service within 30 school days, and chronic absence, suspension, course-passing and state assessment results compared with the three district schools most similar in enrollment and poverty, and shall present the per-pupil cost of the strategy in the annual budget.",
   "red_flags": [
    "community school designation with no funded coordinator position",
    "wraparound services listed without a needs assessment or a service log",
    "partnerships 'as resources permit' with no written agreement",
    "no outcome reporting against comparison schools",
    "the strategy limited to after-school programs or a single health clinic without integrated student review"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "community school",
     "community schools",
     "full-service",
     "wraparound",
     "integrated student supports",
     "community partnerships",
     "site coordinator",
     "school-based health"
    ],
    "regex": "community school|full[- ]service (community )?school|wrap[- ]?around|integrated (student )?support|(site|community school) coordinator"
   },
   "law_notes": "ESSA Title IV Part F authorizes the federal Full-Service Community Schools grant program (20 U.S.C. 7275) and Title I Section 1115 allows schoolwide programs to fund integrated supports. California's Community Schools Partnership Program (Education Code 8900 et seq.) has committed over $4 billion since 2021; New York's Foundation Aid includes a community schools set-aside; Maryland's Blueprint funds Concentration of Poverty grants requiring a coordinator and health services. Several states (for example New Mexico and Vermont) have community school statutes defining the four pillars.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "model_clause_previous": "The Board shall designate community schools from among schools in which 60 percent or more of students are eligible for free or reduced-price meals, English learners or in foster care, and shall fund each designated school with a full-time community school coordinator employed by the district or a lead partner under a written agreement approved by the Board. Each designated school shall conduct a needs and assets assessment of students, families and the neighborhood by October 31 of its first year and every two years thereafter, shall review every enrolled student at least once a year to identify academic, health, social and material needs, and shall record in the student support system the needs identified and the service connected, with a target that 90 percent of identified needs are matched to a service within 30 school days. Each designated school shall have a site leadership team including the principal, the coordinator, at least two teachers, at least two parents and a community partner that meets monthly. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by December 31 each year, for each designated school: coordinator staffing, partner agreements, the share of identified needs served within 30 days, and chronic absence, suspension, course-passing and state assessment results compared with the three district schools most similar in enrollment and poverty, and shall present the per-pupil cost of the strategy in the annual budget.",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through a district community schools director who supervises site coordinators and holds the lead partner agreements",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent identifies every school in which 60 percent or more of students are eligible for free or reduced-price meals, are English learners or are in foster care, and presents the eligible list to the Board.",
     "The Board designates the first cohort of community schools from the eligible list and the Chief Financial Officer identifies Title I schoolwide, state community school and Title IV Part F funds for coordinator salaries.",
     "The Superintendent posts and fills a full-time coordinator position for each designated school, employed by the district or a lead partner.",
     "The Superintendent negotiates and brings to the Board a signed lead partner agreement for each designated school.",
     "Each principal convenes a site leadership team of the principal, the coordinator, at least two teachers, at least two parents and a community partner and schedules monthly meetings."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each coordinator completes the needs and assets assessment of students, families and the neighborhood by October 31 and reviews the findings with the site leadership team.",
     "Each coordinator leads a review of every enrolled student at least once during the year and logs identified needs and the service connected in the student support system.",
     "The research or data office identifies for each designated school the three district schools most similar in enrollment and poverty and sets up the comparison reporting.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first annual report to the Board by December 31 covering coordinator staffing, signed agreements, the 30-school-day service match rate, and attendance, suspension, course-passing and assessment results against comparison schools."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by December 31 each year on each designated school against its three comparison schools and presents the per-pupil cost of the strategy in the annual budget.",
     "Each coordinator repeats the needs and assets assessment by October 31 each year and the universal student review, and the site leadership team continues to meet monthly.",
     "The Board reviews the designation list annually and adds or removes schools based on eligibility and reported results."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "For each designated school: full-time coordinator in place, signed lead partner agreement, share of identified student needs matched to a service within 30 school days, and chronic absence, suspension and course-passing rates compared with the three most similar district schools.",
    "baseline": "Prior-year chronic absence, suspension and course-passing rates at each designated school and its three comparison schools, recorded before designation; no needs are logged before the first student review.",
    "target": "By the first December 31 report, every designated school has a full-time coordinator and a signed lead partner agreement and has matched 90 percent of identified needs to a service within 30 school days; within 1 to 3 years, chronic absence and suspension rates at designated schools fall relative to their comparison schools, with a direction of improvement in course-passing rates.",
    "benchmark": "Evaluated systems show chronic absence reductions of 7 to 8 percentage points (New York City) and about 30 percent with suspensions down about 15 percent (California) relative to comparison schools; achievement gains were small and slow, math +0.13 SD only in year three in New York City and +0.06 SD math and +0.05 SD ELA in the first year in California, so attendance and discipline are the earlier signals.",
    "report": "Superintendent's written report to the Board by December 31 each year, one page per designated school showing staffing, agreement status, the 30-school-day match rate, and the three-school comparison on attendance, suspension, course-passing and state assessment results, with the per-pupil cost shown in the annual budget."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "four-pillars",
     "text": "The policy defines the community school strategy by four pillars: integrated student supports, expanded learning time, family and community engagement, collaborative leadership.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "funded-coordinator",
     "text": "The policy requires each designated community school to have a funded full-time coordinator.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "needs-assessment",
     "text": "The policy requires each designated community school to conduct an annual needs assessment.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "universal-support-review",
     "text": "The policy requires each designated community school to conduct a universal student support review.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "lead-partner-agreement",
     "text": "The policy requires each designated community school to have a lead partner agreement.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "comparison-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires annual reporting of attendance, discipline and achievement against matched comparison schools.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "family-engagement",
   "domain": "Family engagement and two-way communication",
   "category": "family-and-community",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "attendance",
    "discipline",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Randomized trials show that specific, frequent, two-way teacher-to-family communication about a child's own effort, attendance and missed work raises engagement and achievement: daily teacher messages increased homework completion 40 percent, weekly one-sentence notes cut course failure 41 percent, automated missed-assignment alerts cut course failures 27 percent, and parent-school meetings in France reduced truancy and discipline sanctions by about 0.15 SD. Meta-analyses of family-school partnership programs find small to moderate positive associations with achievement (r about 0.12 for involvement overall; about 0.3 SD for structured programs), strongest for communication about schoolwork and parental expectations rather than attendance at events.",
   "effect": "Teacher-family communication RCTs: homework completion +40%, course failure -27% to -41%, truancy and sanctions -0.15 SD; involvement meta-analyses: r = 0.12 overall, programs about +0.3 SD; achievement effects of information nudges concentrated in grades, not state tests",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Most of the 'family engagement' literature is correlational and the strong associations in meta-analyses (Jeynes 2012, Castro 2015) partly reflect which families are already engaged; Hill and Tyson (2009) found school-based involvement (volunteering, attending events) and homework help have the weakest or even negative links to achievement in middle school, so policies that count event attendance measure the wrong thing. The causal trials show effects on grades, homework and course passing but generally not on state test scores (Bergman and Chan 2021, Avvisati et al. 2014), and they involve information about the specific child, delivered by the teacher or an automated system, not generic newsletters or parent nights. Eklund et al. (2022) found the family-school partnership category of attendance interventions had a confidence interval including zero. Take-up collapses under opt-in enrollment, and immigrant and limited-English families report the most barriers, so an unfunded two-way expectation can widen gaps rather than close them.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Dougherty SM (2013). The effect of teacher-family communication on student engagement: evidence from a randomized field experiment. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 6(3):199-222.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2012.743636",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2012.743636",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "daily teacher phone call or message home for grade 6 and 9 summer students raised odds of homework completion 40 percent, cut redirections 25 percent, raised participation 15 percent",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Teacher–Family Communication on Student Engagement: Evidence From a Randomized Field Experiment",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 214,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2012_743636.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Rogers T (2015). The underutilized potential of teacher-to-parent communication: evidence from a field experiment. Economics of Education Review 47:49-63.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.04.001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.04.001",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "weekly one-sentence teacher messages to parents reduced the share of credit-recovery students failing to earn credit by 41 percent",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The underutilized potential of teacher-to-parent communication: Evidence from a field experiment",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 213,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bergman P (2021). Parent-child information frictions and human capital investment: evidence from a field experiment. Journal of Political Economy 129(1):286-322.",
     "doi": "10.1086/711410",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1086/711410",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "biweekly information to parents about their child's missed assignments corrected parents' upward-biased beliefs about effort and improved achievement at low cost",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Parent-Child Information Frictions and Human Capital Investment: Evidence from a Field Experiment",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of Political Economy",
      "first_author": "Bergman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 218,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_711410.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bergman P, Chan EW (2021). Leveraging parents through low-cost technology: the impact of high-frequency information on student achievement. Journal of Human Resources 56(1):125-158.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.56.1.1118-9837R1",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.56.1.1118-9837R1",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "automated texts on absences, missed assignments and low grades in 22 schools cut course failures 27 percent and raised class attendance 12 percent; no effect on state tests",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Leveraging Parents through Low-Cost Technology",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Bergman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 68,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_56_1_1118_9837R1.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Avvisati F, Gurgand M, Guyon N, Maurin E (2014). Getting parents involved: a field experiment in deprived schools. Review of Economic Studies 81(1):57-83.",
     "doi": "10.1093/restud/rdt027",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdt027",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "inviting middle-school parents to a short series of parent-school meetings increased home and school involvement and reduced truancy and disciplinary sanctions about 0.15 SD, with spillovers to classmates; test scores unchanged",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Getting Parents Involved: A Field Experiment in Deprived Schools",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "The Review of Economic Studies",
      "first_author": "Avvisati",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 199,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1093_restud_rdt027.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Smith TE, Sheridan SM, Kim EM, Park S, Beretvas SN (2020). The effects of family-school partnership interventions on academic and social-emotional functioning: a meta-analysis exploring what works for whom. Educational Psychology Review 32(2):511-544.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10648-019-09509-w",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09509-w",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "structured family-school partnership interventions produce small positive effects on both academic and social-emotional outcomes, with moderators by program type and population",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Family-School Partnership Interventions on Academic and Social-Emotional Functioning: a Meta-Analysis Exploring What Works for Whom",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Educational Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Smith",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 236,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Castro M, Exposito-Casas E, Lopez-Martin E, Lizasoain L, Navarro-Asencio E, Gaviria JL (2015). Parental involvement on student academic achievement: a meta-analysis. Educational Research Review 14:33-46.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.edurev.2015.01.002",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.01.002",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "37 studies 2000-2013; overall involvement-achievement association about r = 0.12; strongest for high expectations, communication about school activities and reading habits",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Parental involvement on student academic achievement: A meta-analysis",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Research Review",
      "first_author": "Castro",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 883,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hill NE, Tyson DF (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: a meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology 45(3):740-763.",
     "doi": "10.1037/a0015362",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "academic socialization (expectations, discussing school) has the strongest link to middle-school achievement; school-based involvement is weaker and homework help is weakest",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement.",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Developmental Psychology",
      "first_author": "Hill",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2173,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_a0015362.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jeynes W (2012). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of different types of parental involvement programs for urban students. Urban Education 47(4):706-742.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0042085912445643",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085912445643",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "51 studies; parental involvement programs associated with about 0.3 SD higher achievement for pre-K to 12 urban students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Meta-Analysis of the Efficacy of Different Types of Parental Involvement Programs for Urban Students",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "Urban Education",
      "first_author": "Jeynes",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 781,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0042085912445643.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "York BN, Loeb S, Doss C (2019). One step at a time: the effects of an early literacy text-messaging program for parents of preschoolers. Journal of Human Resources 54(3):537-566.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.54.3.0517-8756R",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.54.3.0517-8756R",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "eight months of thrice-weekly literacy texts to preschool parents raised home literacy activities and child literacy by 0.2 to 0.3 SD at about $1 per family",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "One Step at a Time",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "York",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 158,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_54_3_0517_8756R.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Doss C, Fahle EM, Loeb S, York BN (2019). More than just a nudge: supporting kindergarten parents with differentiated and personalized text messages. Journal of Human Resources 54(3):567-603.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.54.3.0317-8637r",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.54.3.0317-8637r",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "texts personalized to the child's level outperformed generic texts, with gains concentrated among children furthest from average; content specific to the child matters",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "More Than Just a Nudge",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Doss",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 86,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_54_3_0317_8637r.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bergman P, Lasky-Fink J, Rogers T (2020). Simplification and defaults affect adoption and impact of technology, but decision makers do not realize it. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 158:66-79.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.04.001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.04.001",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "opt-in enrollment for a parent alert system produced near-zero take-up; default enrollment is required for communication systems to reach families",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Simplification and defaults affect adoption and impact of technology, but decision makers do not realize it",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes",
      "first_author": "Bergman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 35,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gubbels J, van der Put CE, Assink M (2019). Risk factors for school absenteeism and dropout: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48(9):1637-1667.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10964-019-01072-5",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01072-5",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "low parent-school involvement is among the large-effect risk domains for absenteeism",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Risk Factors for School Absenteeism and Dropout: A Meta-Analytic Review",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Youth and Adolescence",
      "first_author": "Gubbels",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 597,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1007_s10964_019_01072_5.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Eklund K, Burns MK, Oyen K, DeMarchena S, McCollom EM (2022). Addressing chronic absenteeism in schools: a meta-analysis of evidence-based interventions. School Psychology Review 51(1):95-111.",
     "doi": "10.1080/2372966X.2020.1789436",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1789436",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: the family-school partnership category of attendance interventions had a confidence interval that included zero",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Addressing Chronic Absenteeism in Schools: A Meta-Analysis of Evidence-Based Interventions",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Eklund",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 75,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_2372966X_2020_1789436.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Elementary and Secondary Education Act Section 1116, Parent and family engagement, 20 U.S.C. 6318 (as amended by ESSA 2015).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/20/6318",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Title I schools must adopt a written parent and family engagement policy, hold an annual meeting, jointly develop a school-parent compact, and provide information in a language parents understand to the extent practicable; districts must reserve at least 1 percent of Title I funds above $500,000 for engagement",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Percent of students whose family received at least two documented, individualized two-way contacts (phone, text exchange, conference or home visit, logged in the student information system with date, mode, language and topic) in the year, by school and subgroup; share of families enrolled by default in the alert system and reachable by verified phone; parent-teacher conference participation rate; annual family survey response rate and results on 'the school tells me how my child is doing'.",
   "standard": "Policy sets a measurable district-wide expectation (not only Title I schools) of at least two individualized two-way contacts per family per year about the child's own progress, attendance and missed work, in the family's preferred language, logged in the student information system; requires default enrollment of all families in progress alerts; and requires annual public reporting of contact rates, conference participation and family survey results by school and subgroup.",
   "model_clause": "Every school shall make at least two documented two-way contacts with the family of every enrolled student each school year, the first by October 31 and the second by March 31, about that student's own attendance, progress and missed work. A two-way contact is a phone call, in-person or video conference, home visit or text exchange in which the family responds; a newsletter, mass message or automated call shall not count. Each contact shall be made in the family's preferred language and shall be logged in the student information system with the date, mode, language and topic. The district shall enroll every family by default in weekly progress alerts covering absences, missing assignments and grades below the passing threshold, with the ability to opt out, and shall verify each family's phone number and language preference at enrollment and each August. Each school shall hold at least one scheduled conference per student per year, offered at two or more times including one outside working hours, with interpretation provided on request. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by November 30 each year, by school and subgroup, the share of students whose families received two logged two-way contacts in the prior year, conference participation, alert enrollment, and the results of an annual family survey administered in the district's top five home languages, and shall publish the report on the district website.",
   "red_flags": [
    "family engagement defined only as volunteering, PTA, fundraising or attendance at school events",
    "a parent and family engagement policy that applies only to Title I schools",
    "communication expectations with no logging, no frequency and no named role",
    "'parents are encouraged to' language with no obligation on the school",
    "parent portal or alert enrollment that is opt-in only",
    "conferences offered only during the school day",
    "home language communication 'when feasible' or 'as resources allow'"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "parent involvement",
     "family engagement",
     "parental involvement",
     "parent-teacher conference",
     "school-parent compact",
     "Title I parent",
     "communication with parents",
     "parent notification",
     "family partnership"
    ],
    "regex": "(parent|family|parental) (involvement|engagement|partnership|participation)|parent[- ]teacher conference|school[- ]parent compact|communicat(e|ion) with (parents|families)"
   },
   "law_notes": "ESEA Section 1116 (20 U.S.C. 6318) requires every Title I district and school to adopt a written parent and family engagement policy developed with parents, a school-parent compact, an annual meeting, and information 'in a format and, to the extent practicable, in a language the parents can understand'; districts receiving more than $500,000 must reserve at least 1 percent for engagement, with 90 percent going to schools. IDEA (34 CFR 300.322 and 300.503) requires parent participation in IEP meetings and notices in the native language. Title VI and the Equal Educational Opportunities Act require meaningful communication with limited-English parents.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Family Engagement as day-to-day lead and principals accountable for school-level contact rates",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent designates the Director of Family Engagement as policy lead and names a principal and a teacher representative from each grade band to a 90-day implementation team.",
     "The student information system administrator builds the two-way contact log fields (date, mode, language, topic, family response) and a per-student report, and the Director of Family Engagement trains every principal and teacher on logging within 60 days.",
     "The Chief Technology Officer configures weekly progress alerts for absences, missing assignments and grades below the passing threshold, enrolls every family by default with an opt-out, and the registrar verifies each family's phone number and language preference at enrollment.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement publishes a one-page contact guide and sample scripts in the district's top five home languages and confirms interpretation is available for calls and conferences.",
     "Each principal reviews the policy with staff and sets the October 31 and March 31 contact deadlines on the school calendar, with conferences offered at two or more times including one outside working hours."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal pulls the contact log monthly and assigns follow-up to the counselor or family liaison for any student whose family has not yet responded to a two-way contact before the October 31 and March 31 deadlines.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement administers the annual family survey in the district's top five home languages and reports the response rate and results by school and subgroup.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first annual report to the Board by November 30 covering two-contact rates, conference participation, alert enrollment and verified phone reach by school and subgroup, and posts it on the district website.",
     "The Title I coordinator aligns the district and school parent and family engagement policies and school-parent compacts under ESEA Section 1116 with this clause and confirms the 1 percent reservation, with 90 percent passed to schools, funds liaisons and interpretation."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The registrar re-verifies every family's phone number and language preference each August and the Chief Technology Officer re-enrolls new families in alerts by default.",
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by November 30 each year and the Board reviews school and subgroup gaps in two-contact rates and conference participation before adopting the next budget.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement audits a sample of logged contacts each semester to confirm they were individualized, two-way and in the family's preferred language."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Percent of enrolled students whose family received at least two logged, individualized two-way contacts in the school year (one by October 31, one by March 31), by school and subgroup; plus share of families enrolled in alerts and reachable by verified phone, conference participation rate, and family survey response rate and agreement with 'the school tells me how my child is doing'",
    "baseline": "Year-one contact log and the first family survey establish the baseline, since no district-wide two-way contact rate exists before the log is built",
    "target": "Every school reaches a majority of students with two logged two-way contacts in year one and raises that share each year through year three, with the gap between the lowest and highest subgroup narrowing each year; all families enrolled in alerts by default with a verified phone on file by the end of each August; survey response rate and agreement with 'the school tells me how my child is doing' rising each year",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric benchmark for contact rates; the evidence is from trials of communication practices (homework completion +40 percent, course failure -27 to -41 percent, truancy and sanctions -0.15 SD), not a published target rate, so the target is directional",
    "report": "Superintendent's annual report to the Board by November 30, by school and subgroup, published on the district website, with a mid-year check at the March 31 deadline"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "two-contacts-per-family",
     "text": "The policy requires at least two individualized two-way contacts per family per year about the child's own progress, attendance and missed work.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "district-wide-not-title-i",
     "text": "The policy applies the family contact expectation district-wide to all schools, not only Title I schools.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "preferred-language",
     "text": "The policy requires that family contacts be made in the family's preferred language.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "logged-in-sis",
     "text": "The policy requires that family contacts be logged in the student information system.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "default-alert-enrollment",
     "text": "The policy requires default enrollment of all families in progress alerts.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-public-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires annual public reporting of contact rates, conference participation and family survey results by school and subgroup.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "language-access-for-families",
   "domain": "Language access for families",
   "category": "family-and-community",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Federal civil rights law (Title VI, the Equal Educational Opportunities Act and Lau v. Nichols) requires districts to communicate with limited-English parents in a language they understand, and IDEA requires native-language notices and interpreters for special education. Nationally representative data show that immigrant parents report the most barriers to school involvement and that English ability predicts how involved they are; the largest communication RCT that improved attendance (131,312 students) delivered its notices in five languages, and a vendor-funded matched study of a translated two-way messaging platform reports attendance gains concentrated among English learner and Latino families.",
   "effect": "Compliance obligation; involvement gap by English proficiency documented in ECLS-K and PISA; translated two-way messaging platform (vendor study): absence -24% in Tulsa, larger gains for ELs; no causal estimate of translation itself",
   "evidence_tier": "D",
   "counter_evidence": "No randomized or quasi-experimental study isolates the effect of translating or interpreting school communication on student outcomes; the trials that used home-language messages did not report results by language, and the strongest platform evidence (TalkingPoints) is produced by the vendor from matched comparisons. Machine translation can carry errors in high-stakes documents (discipline notices, IEPs, consent forms), and Cheatham (2011) documents interpretation in special education that fails IDEA's participation and consent standards even when an interpreter is present. Federal enforcement has weakened: Executive Order 14224 (March 2025) revoked EO 13166, the Department of Justice rescinded its LEP guidance in July 2025, and the Department of Education rescinded the January 2015 Dear Colleague letter in August 2025; the statutes and Lau remain binding but complaint-driven enforcement is less predictable, so the obligation increasingly rests on district policy and state law.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Turney K, Kao G (2009). Barriers to school involvement: are immigrant parents disadvantaged? Journal of Educational Research 102(4):257-271.",
     "doi": "10.3200/JOER.102.4.257-271",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.102.4.257-271",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "ECLS-K: minority immigrant parents report more barriers to involvement and are less involved at school; English language ability and time in the US predict involvement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Barriers to School Involvement: Are Immigrant Parents Disadvantaged?",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "The Journal of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Turney",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 627,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3200_JOER_102_4_257_271.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kim Y (2009). Minority parental involvement and school barriers: moving the focus away from deficiencies of parents. Educational Research Review 4(2):80-102.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.edurev.2009.02.003",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2009.02.003",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "school-side barriers, including language and the absence of interpreters and translated materials, explain much of the lower school-based involvement of minority and immigrant parents",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Minority parental involvement and school barriers: Moving the focus away from deficiencies of parents",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Educational Research Review",
      "first_author": "Kim",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 289,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cheatham GA (2011). Language interpretation, parent participation, and young children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 31(2):78-88.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0271121410377120",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121410377120",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "interpretation in early intervention and special education is often inadequate to meet IDEA's parent participation and informed consent mandates; quality standards for interpreters are needed",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Language Interpretation, Parent Participation, and Young Children With Disabilities",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Topics in Early Childhood Special Education",
      "first_author": "Cheatham",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 35,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0271121410377120.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "OECD (2017). PISA 2015 Results (Volume III): Students' Well-Being. OECD Publishing, Paris.",
     "doi": "10.1787/9789264273856-en",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264273856-en",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "parents with an immigrant background are more likely to report that language skills hinder their participation in school activities (Chapter 9, Table III.9.25)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "PISA 2015 Results (Volume III)",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "PISA",
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 802,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lasky-Fink J, Robinson CD, Chang HN, Rogers T (2021). Using behavioral insights to improve school administrative communications: the case of truancy notifications. Educational Researcher 50(7):442-450.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189X211000749",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211000749",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "the effective plain-language truancy notices were sent in English, Spanish, Armenian, Chinese and Korean; translation was built into the intervention that worked",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Using Behavioral Insights to Improve School Administrative Communications: The Case of Truancy Notifications",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Lasky-Fink",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 23,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189X211000749.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "TalkingPoints (2025). Boosting attendance and reducing suspensions with TalkingPoints: a two-year quasi-experimental study in a large urban district.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://talkingpts.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/TalkingPoints-Attendance-Behavior-Improvement-Study-2025.pdf",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "vendor-produced matched comparison of a two-way, auto-translated family messaging platform: higher attendance and lower suspensions for users, with larger gains for English learners and Latino families; treat as suggestive, not causal",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/414/563",
     "year": 1974,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Supreme Court: providing the same materials in English to students who do not understand English denies meaningful participation and violates Title VI",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. 2000d.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/2000d",
     "year": 1964,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "no person shall be excluded from participation in or denied the benefits of any federally funded program on the ground of national origin; the statutory basis for parent language access",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974, 20 U.S.C. 1703(f).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/20/1703",
     "year": 1974,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "states and districts must take appropriate action to overcome language barriers that impede equal participation in instructional programs; privately enforceable",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Elementary and Secondary Education Act Section 1116(f), 20 U.S.C. 6318(f).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/20/6318",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Title I districts must provide parent information and school reports in a format and, to the extent practicable, in a language parents can understand",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "34 CFR 300.503(c) and 300.322(e), Individuals with Disabilities Education Act regulations on prior written notice and parent participation.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/34/300.503",
     "year": 2006,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "prior written notice must be in the parent's native language unless clearly not feasible, and the district must take whatever action is necessary, including arranging an interpreter, so parents understand IEP meetings",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights and US Department of Justice (2015). Dear Colleague Letter: English learner students and limited English proficient parents. January 7, 2015. Rescinded August 2025 and retained online for historical purposes.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.colorincolorado.org/guide/dear-colleague-letter-english-learner-students-and-limited-english-proficient-parents-0172015",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "the former federal interpretation: districts must notify LEP parents of any program, service or activity communicated to English-speaking parents, in a language they understand, using competent interpreters and translators, not students or machine translation alone; rescinded by the Department in August 2025 but the underlying statutes it interpreted remain in force",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Department of Justice, Office of the Attorney General (2025). Memorandum: Implementation of Executive Order 14224, Designating English as the Official Language of the United States. July 14, 2025.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.justice.gov/ag/media/1407776/dl",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "documents the rescission of DOJ's 2002 LEP guidance and the revocation of EO 13166 while acknowledging that Title VI obligations remain; the current federal posture a district policy must now fill",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of families with a recorded home language other than English who received each required notice category (enrollment, discipline, special education, attendance, health, emergency) in their language, from the student information system; interpreter requests fulfilled within the policy timeline; conference and IEP meeting participation rates for limited-English families compared with English-speaking families; family survey results by language.",
   "standard": "Policy identifies each family's preferred language at enrollment, translates all vital documents into every language spoken by 5 percent or 1,000 families (whichever is less) and provides free qualified interpretation on request for any language, prohibits reliance on children or untrained staff as interpreters, names a district language access coordinator, and reports delivery rates by language annually.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall ask every family at enrollment, and confirm each August, the language in which the family prefers to receive written and spoken communication, and shall record it in the student information system. The district shall provide free, timely and competent language assistance to every parent or guardian with limited English proficiency so that the parent can participate meaningfully in the child's education. Vital documents, including enrollment forms, handbooks and codes of conduct, discipline notices, attendance notices, special education notices and consent forms, health and emergency notices, report cards and progress reports, and notices of parent meetings, shall be translated in writing into every language spoken by at least 5 percent of enrolled families or 1,000 families, whichever is less, and shall be provided orally or in writing on request in any other language. A qualified interpreter shall be provided at no cost for any meeting between school staff and a limited-English parent, including conferences, discipline hearings, IEP and Section 504 meetings, within five school days of a request or sooner where a legal deadline applies, and remote interpretation shall be available for unscheduled contacts. Students, siblings, other children, and staff without demonstrated proficiency shall not be used as interpreters except in an emergency to arrange a qualified interpreter. Machine translation may be used for routine messages only when reviewed by a proficient speaker before release for any vital document. The Superintendent shall designate a language access coordinator, shall publish the district's language access plan and a list of translated documents on the district website, and shall report to the Board by October 31 each year: the number of families by preferred language, the share of required notices delivered in the family's language, interpreter requests and fulfillment times, conference and IEP participation rates of limited-English families compared with all families, and complaints received.",
   "red_flags": [
    "translation or interpretation provided 'when feasible', 'as resources allow' or 'upon availability'",
    "students or family members used as interpreters for discipline, special education or health matters",
    "written translation limited to a single language regardless of enrollment",
    "no named role responsible for language access and no complaint route",
    "notices deemed delivered when sent in English only",
    "fees charged for translation or interpretation"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "interpreter",
     "translation",
     "translated",
     "limited English",
     "English proficiency",
     "home language",
     "native language",
     "language access",
     "bilingual",
     "LEP parents",
     "English learner parents"
    ],
    "regex": "interpret(er|ation)|translat(e|ed|ion)|limited[- ]english|native language|home language|language access|primary language"
   },
   "law_notes": "Title VI (42 U.S.C. 2000d) and the EEOA (20 U.S.C. 1703(f)) remain in force and privately enforceable; Lau v. Nichols (1974) is the controlling precedent. EO 14224 (March 1, 2025) designated English the official language and revoked EO 13166; DOJ rescinded its 2002 LEP guidance (July 14, 2025) and the Department of Education rescinded the January 2015 EL and LEP-parent Dear Colleague letter (August 2025); neither action changes the statutes. ESSA Section 1116(f) requires Title I information in a language parents understand to the extent practicable; IDEA regulations (34 CFR 300.503(c), 300.322(e), 300.9) require native-language notices, interpreters at IEP meetings and consent in the native language. Many states go further: California Education Code 48985 requires translation when 15 percent of students speak a language; Illinois 105 ILCS 5/14-8.02 addresses special education interpretation; Washington's language access chapter (RCW 28A.183) sets interpreter and translation standards for schools. Districts with 5 percent or more families speaking one language are the usual enforcement trigger under former OCR practice.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through a designated district language access coordinator",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent names a language access coordinator within 30 days and announces the role to all principals and front office staff.",
     "The coordinator adds a preferred-language field for written and spoken communication to the enrollment form and the student information system within 60 days.",
     "The coordinator pulls a count of enrolled families by home language from the student information system and identifies every language spoken by at least 5 percent of families or 1,000 families, whichever is less.",
     "The coordinator contracts with a qualified interpretation and translation vendor, including remote interpretation for unscheduled contacts, within 90 days.",
     "The coordinator issues written direction to all schools that students, siblings, other children and staff without demonstrated proficiency may not be used as interpreters except in an emergency to arrange a qualified interpreter."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The coordinator oversees translation of every vital document category named in the clause into each qualifying language and posts the list of translated documents and the language access plan on the district website.",
     "Principals confirm each family's preferred language in August and ensure it is recorded in the student information system.",
     "The coordinator sets up tracking of interpreter requests, fulfillment dates and notice delivery by language in the student information system so that requests can be checked against the five school day timeline.",
     "The coordinator trains front office staff, counselors, special education staff and administrators on how to request interpreters and how to route vital documents for translation."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The coordinator reports to the Board by October 31 each year on families by preferred language, share of required notices delivered in the family's language, interpreter requests and fulfillment times, conference and IEP participation of limited-English families compared with all families, and complaints received.",
     "Principals reconfirm preferred language with every family each August and the coordinator updates the qualifying-language list from the new enrollment counts.",
     "The coordinator reviews any machine-translated vital document with a proficient speaker before release and investigates every complaint about language access."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of families with a recorded home language other than English who received each required notice category (enrollment, discipline, special education, attendance, health, emergency) in their preferred language, share of interpreter requests fulfilled within five school days, and conference and IEP meeting participation rates of limited-English families compared with all families.",
    "baseline": "First-year report to the Board by October 31 establishes the baseline for each measure; before this policy most districts have no recorded preferred language and cannot report delivery by language.",
    "target": "Within 1 to 3 years, the share of required notices delivered in the family's preferred language rises each year, every interpreter request is fulfilled within five school days or sooner where a legal deadline applies, and the gap in conference and IEP participation between limited-English families and all families narrows year over year.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric benchmark for delivery rates or participation gaps; the only numeric thresholds are the 5 percent or 1,000 family translation trigger, the five school day interpreter timeline, and the October 31 reporting date. The vendor study of translated two-way messaging reports absence down 24 percent in Tulsa with larger gains for English learners, but the entry notes no causal estimate of translation itself, so that figure is not a target.",
    "report": "The language access coordinator reports to the Board by October 31 each year in a public written report, broken out by language, with interpreter fulfillment times, participation rate comparisons and complaints received."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "preferred-language-at-enrollment",
     "text": "The policy requires identifying each family's preferred language at enrollment.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "translate-vital-documents-threshold",
     "text": "The policy translates all vital documents into every language spoken by 5 percent or 1,000 families, whichever is less.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "free-qualified-interpretation",
     "text": "The policy provides free qualified interpretation on request for any language.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-children-or-untrained-interpreters",
     "text": "The policy prohibits reliance on children or untrained staff as interpreters.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "named-language-access-coordinator",
     "text": "The policy names a district language access coordinator.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-delivery-rates-by-language",
     "text": "The policy reports delivery rates by language annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "home-visits",
   "domain": "Teacher home visits",
   "category": "family-and-community",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "achievement",
    "discipline",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Matched-comparison studies of relationship-building teacher home visits (the Parent Teacher Home Visits model and the DC Family Engagement Partnership) consistently find that visited students are less likely to be chronically absent (21 to 24 percent lower odds or fewer absences), somewhat more likely to score proficient in reading, and have fewer disciplinary incidents, with small positive effects on grades (d about 0.12) and math (about 0.11 SD). Schools that visit at least 10 percent of families show school-wide attendance gains that reach non-visited students.",
   "effect": "Chronic absence odds -21% (visited students) and -22% (schools visiting 10%+ of families); ELA proficiency odds +35% at school level; attendance +0.35 points and disciplinary incidents 9.3% vs 12.2% in DC; math +0.11 SD; grades d = 0.12 to 0.13",
   "evidence_tier": "C",
   "counter_evidence": "No randomized trial of teacher home visits in US K-12 has been published; every outcome study uses matched or regression-adjusted comparison groups, and families who accept a visit (or teachers who volunteer to make them) likely differ from those who do not, so the estimates are upper bounds. Effects on achievement are small and inconsistent: Sheldon and Jung (2018) found ELA gains at the school level only in some districts and math gains in two of four; the DC study found math but not ELA gains; Wright et al. (2018) found higher positive-behavior points and grades but no difference in discipline points. Most evaluations were commissioned by the program or its funders. Cost is real: visits take 30 to 60 minutes of paid teacher time outside the school day per family plus training, and the model's own fidelity rules (voluntary for both sides, no targeting of 'problem' students, no agenda beyond hopes and dreams) limit who gets visited. The well-known RCT evidence on home visiting (nurse and parent-educator visits to families of infants) is a different intervention and should not be cited for teacher visits.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Sheldon SB, Jung SB (2018). Student outcomes and parent teacher home visits. Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins University, for Parent Teacher Home Visits.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://pthvp.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/student-outcomes-and-parent-teacher-home-visits.pdf",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "more than 33,000 K-8 students in 110+ schools across three districts (2016-17), logistic regression with controls: visited students had 21 percent lower odds of chronic absence; students in schools visiting 10 percent or more of families had 22 percent lower odds of chronic absence and 35 percent higher odds of ELA proficiency",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sheldon SB, Jung SB (2015). The Family Engagement Partnership: student outcome evaluation. Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins University, for Flamboyan Foundation and District of Columbia Public Schools.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://dcps.dc.gov/publication/dc-family-engagement-partnership-evaluation",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "12 DC elementary schools; students whose families received a home visit had 24 percent fewer absences and were more likely to read at or above grade level than similar non-visited students",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "McKie A, Terziev J, Gill B (2021). Impacts of home visits on students in District of Columbia Public Schools. REL 2022-128. Regional Educational Laboratory Mid-Atlantic, Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/use-work/resource-library/report/impact-study/impacts-home-visits-students-district-columbia-public-schools",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "matched comparison, grades 1-5: attendance 95.28 vs 94.93 percent, any disciplinary incident 9.27 vs 12.22 percent, math +0.11 SD, no ELA difference, no effect on serious incidents",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wright KB, Shields SM, Black K, Waxman HC (2018). The effects of teacher home visits on student behavior, student academic achievement, and parent involvement. School Community Journal 28(1):67-90.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.adi.org/journal/2018ss/WrightEtAlSpring2018.pdf",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "3,681 visited K-12 students in a Texas charter system matched to non-visited peers: higher positive-behavior points (d = 0.13) and math and ELA course grades (d = 0.12 to 0.13), no difference in discipline points; parents reported more involvement",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Meyer JA, Mann MB (2006). Teachers' perceptions of the benefits of home visits for early elementary children. Early Childhood Education Journal 34(1):93-97.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10643-006-0113-z",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-006-0113-z",
     "year": 2006,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "teachers report that visits improve their understanding of the child, parent communication and the child's classroom behavior; mechanism evidence only",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Teachers’ Perceptions of the Benefits of Home Visits for Early Elementary Children",
      "year": 2006,
      "journal": "Early Childhood Education Journal",
      "first_author": "Meyer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 69,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cook PJ, Dodge KA, Gifford EJ, Schulting AB (2017). A new program to prevent primary school absenteeism: results of a pilot study in five schools. Children and Youth Services Review 82:262-270.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.09.017",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.09.017",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "the Early Truancy Prevention Project, which builds on teacher home visits in grades K-3 plus tiered follow-up, was feasible and reduced absences in a five-school pilot; the closest thing to randomized evidence for teacher visits",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A new program to prevent primary school absenteeism: Results of a pilot study in five schools",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Children and Youth Services Review",
      "first_author": "Cook",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 87,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft MA, Dougherty SM (2013). The effect of teacher-family communication on student engagement: evidence from a randomized field experiment. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 6(3):199-222.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2012.743636",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2012.743636",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "causal evidence for the mechanism home visits rely on: direct teacher-to-family communication raises homework completion, on-task behavior and participation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Teacher–Family Communication on Student Engagement: Evidence From a Randomized Field Experiment",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 214,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2012_743636.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Smith TE, Sheridan SM, Kim EM, Park S, Beretvas SN (2020). The effects of family-school partnership interventions on academic and social-emotional functioning: a meta-analysis exploring what works for whom. Educational Psychology Review 32(2):511-544.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10648-019-09509-w",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09509-w",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "relationship-based family-school partnership interventions as a class show small positive academic and social-emotional effects",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Family-School Partnership Interventions on Academic and Social-Emotional Functioning: a Meta-Analysis Exploring What Works for Whom",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Educational Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Smith",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 236,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Attendance Works and Parent Teacher Home Visits (2019). Parent Teacher Home Visits: improving attendance through relationship-building home visits.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.attendanceworks.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Attendance-Works-PTHV-attachment-072319.pdf",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "model fidelity standards: voluntary for teacher and family, teachers compensated, visits in pairs, focus on hopes and dreams, no targeting of a single group, second visit later in the year",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Percent of enrolled families receiving at least one relationship-building home visit per year, by school and grade band (program log in the student information system); chronic absence rate of visited versus non-visited students in the same schools, adjusted for prior-year attendance; share of visits conducted in the family's home language with a bilingual visitor or interpreter; teacher participation rate.",
   "standard": "Policy authorizes and funds voluntary, paid, relationship-building teacher home visits following a recognized model (visits in pairs, trained staff, family's language, no targeting of 'problem' students), sets a reach target of at least 10 percent of families per school with priority on transition grades and chronically absent students who volunteer, and requires annual reporting of reach and attendance outcomes.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall operate a voluntary teacher home visit program in every school following a recognized relationship-building model. Visits shall be made by two trained staff members, shall be voluntary for both the family and the staff, shall be scheduled at the family's convenience and in a location the family chooses, shall be conducted in the family's preferred language with a bilingual visitor or interpreter, and shall have no agenda beyond building a relationship and learning the family's hopes for the student. Staff shall be paid at their hourly rate or a Board-approved stipend for training and for each visit outside the contract day. Each school shall offer a visit to the families of all students entering kindergarten, sixth grade and ninth grade, and to the families of all students who were chronically absent in the prior year, and shall aim to complete visits with at least 10 percent of enrolled families each year, with a second visit offered later in the year. Students shall not be selected for visits on the basis of discipline history, and visits shall not be used to deliver warnings or enforce attendance. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by September 30 each year, by school: the number and share of families visited, visits by language, staff participation, and the chronic absence and course-passing rates of visited students compared with non-visited students in the same schools, and shall include the program in the annual budget.",
   "red_flags": [
    "home visits assigned as a consequence for absence or misconduct, or used to serve truancy notices",
    "visits made by a single staff member, or by attendance officers rather than teachers",
    "no compensation for staff time outside the contract day",
    "visits restricted to 'at-risk' lists",
    "home visit used to check for residency or truancy evidence rather than relationship-building",
    "no language provision for visits to limited-English families"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "home visit",
     "home visits",
     "home visitation",
     "parent teacher home visit",
     "family visit"
    ],
    "regex": "home[- ]visit|family visit|visit(s|ing)? (the )?(student'?s? )?home"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal or state law requires teacher home visits for general education students; some states fund them through family engagement or attendance grants, and California's Community Schools Partnership Program lists them as an allowable strategy. Residency-verification home visits are a different practice governed by state enrollment law and should not be conflated with this domain. Home visiting for infants and toddlers under MIECHV (42 U.S.C. 711) is a separate health program.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, through the Director of Family Engagement, with each principal responsible for school-level reach",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent designates a Director of Family Engagement as program lead and selects a recognized relationship-building home visit model (such as Parent Teacher Home Visits) for district-wide use.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement and the Chief Financial Officer calculate the cost of training, hourly pay or stipends, and interpreter services to reach at least 10 percent of enrolled families per school and present the line item to the Board.",
     "The Superintendent negotiates stipend or hourly-rate terms with the teachers' association and secures Board approval of the pay schedule for training and visits outside the contract day.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement contracts for model-provider training and schedules a first cohort of volunteer teachers and staff from every school, with bilingual staff recruited in each school's major home languages.",
     "The Chief Information Officer adds a home visit log to the student information system that records each visit's date, school, grade, language, staff pair, and whether the student was chronically absent in the prior year."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal offers a visit to every family of a student entering kindergarten, sixth grade, or ninth grade and to every family of a student chronically absent in the prior year, and tracks offers and completed visits in the program log.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement audits a sample of visit logs each semester to confirm that visits are made in pairs, in the family's preferred language, and are not targeted by discipline history or used to enforce attendance.",
     "The Director of Research compares chronic absence and course-passing rates of visited and non-visited students in the same schools, adjusted for prior-year attendance, and the Superintendent delivers the first report to the Board by September 30.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement schedules second-visit offers for visited families in the spring and reports the share accepted."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by September 30 each year, by school, on the share of families visited, visits by language, staff participation, and outcomes of visited versus non-visited students, and includes the program in the annual budget.",
     "Principals of schools below the 10 percent reach target submit a recruitment plan to the Director of Family Engagement within 60 days of the annual report.",
     "The Director of Family Engagement retrains staff annually and refreshes bilingual visitor and interpreter capacity to match enrollment."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Percent of enrolled families receiving at least one relationship-building home visit per year, by school and grade band, and the chronic absence rate of visited versus non-visited students in the same schools, adjusted for prior-year attendance; also share of visits in the family's home language and teacher participation rate.",
    "baseline": "Prior-year chronic absence rate for each school and for the kindergarten, sixth grade, and ninth grade cohorts, plus the number of families visited in the year before adoption (likely zero in most schools), recorded from the student information system before the first visits.",
    "target": "Every school reaches at least 10 percent of enrolled families with a visit within 1 to 3 years, with all transition-grade and prior-year chronically absent families offered a visit in year one; visited students show a lower chronic absence rate than comparable non-visited students in the same schools in each annual report, and no visits are logged as selected by discipline history.",
    "benchmark": "Matched-comparison studies of the Parent Teacher Home Visits model and the DC Family Engagement Partnership found 21 percent lower odds of chronic absence for visited students, 22 percent lower odds at schools visiting 10 percent or more of families, 35 percent higher odds of ELA proficiency at the school level, disciplinary incidents of 9.3 percent versus 12.2 percent, math gains of about 0.11 SD, and grade effects of d = 0.12 to 0.13; evidence tier C, so the Board should treat these as the direction and rough scale of expected effects rather than guaranteed results.",
    "report": "The Superintendent reports to the Board by September 30 each year, by school: number and share of families visited, visits by language, staff participation, offer and completion rates for transition grades and prior-year chronically absent students, and chronic absence and course-passing rates of visited versus non-visited students adjusted for prior-year attendance."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "authorizes-funds-visits",
     "text": "The policy authorizes and funds voluntary, paid, relationship-building teacher home visits that follow a recognized model.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "pairs-trained-staff",
     "text": "The policy requires that home visits are made in pairs by trained staff.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "family-language",
     "text": "The policy requires that home visits are conducted in the family's language.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-targeting",
     "text": "The policy states that home visits are not targeted at students identified as problem students.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "reach-target",
     "text": "The policy sets a reach target of at least 10 percent of families per school.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "priority-groups",
     "text": "The policy prioritizes transition grades and chronically absent students who volunteer for visits.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "indoor-air-and-heat",
   "domain": "Classroom temperature, ventilation and indoor air",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "attendance",
    "equity-gaps",
    "physical-health"
   ],
   "finding": "Heat cuts learning: across 10 million PSAT retakers, each 1 degree F hotter school year reduced that year's learning by about 1 percent in schools without air conditioning, and air conditioning offset nearly all of it; hot school days fall hardest on Black and Hispanic students and explain roughly 5 percent of the racial achievement gap. Poor ventilation costs attendance and scores: in 162 California classrooms each additional 1 L/s per person of outdoor air cut illness absence 1.6 percent, a 140-classroom study found math scores rose 0.5 percent per L/s-person up to the 7.1 L/s-person standard and a further 0.5 percent per degree C cooler within 20 to 25 C, and a double-blind crossover experiment found 3 to 7 percent more correct answers when outdoor air rose from 1.7 to 6.6 L/s-person.",
   "effect": "Learning -1% per +1 F school-year temperature without AC, mostly offset by AC; illness absence -1.6% per +1 L/s-person ventilation; math +0.5% per L/s-person and +0.5% per 1 C cooler (20 to 25 C); test speed +12% and errors -2% when classroom CO2 falls from 2100 to 900 ppm (pooled model); most US classrooms ventilate below the ASHRAE 62.1 rate.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "The heat evidence is tier A (several large natural experiments agree); the ventilation evidence is weaker: Mendell and Haverinen-Shaughnessy are prospective observational studies, Petersen is a small crossover with four classrooms, and Wargocki's 12 percent figure is a pooled model prediction rather than a measured effect. Graff Zivin, Hsiang and Neidell found heat lowers math performance on the day of the test but found no long-run effect of early-life temperature exposure. Stafford's Texas study found renovations that fixed indoor air problems raised test scores, but renovations change many things at once. Air conditioning and ventilation upgrades are capital-intensive (an elementary school HVAC replacement runs into the millions) and raise energy costs, and ASHRAE 241 is a voluntary standard. CO2 is an indicator of ventilation, not a pollutant at classroom levels.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Park RJ, Goodman J, Hurwitz M, Smith J (2020). Heat and learning. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 12(2):306-339.",
     "doi": "10.1257/pol.20180612",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20180612",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "A 1 degree F hotter school year reduces learning about 1 percent without AC; AC offsets most of the loss; hot days explain about 5 percent of the racial achievement gap",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Heat and Learning",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Park",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 231,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_pol_20180612.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Park RJ (2022). Hot temperature and high-stakes performance. Journal of Human Resources 57(2):400-434.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.57.2.0618-9535R3",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.57.2.0618-9535R3",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "In New York City, taking a Regents exam on a 90 F day versus a 72 F day lowers scores and the chance of passing, with lasting effects on graduation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Hot Temperature and High-Stakes Performance",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Park",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 159,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_57_2_0618_9535R3.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Park RJ, Behrer AP, Goodman J (2021). Learning is inhibited by heat exposure, both internationally and within the United States. Nature Human Behaviour 5(1):19-27.",
     "doi": "10.1038/s41562-020-00959-9",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-00959-9",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Hotter school years reduce PISA scores across 58 countries and NAEP learning within the US, with effects concentrated in low-income and minority students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Learning is inhibited by heat exposure, both internationally and within the United States",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Nature Human Behaviour",
      "first_author": "Park",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 189,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Graff Zivin J, Hsiang SM, Neidell M (2018). Temperature and human capital in the short and long run. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists 5(1):77-105.",
     "doi": "10.1086/694177",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1086/694177",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Math performance falls on hot test days above about 79 F; counter-evidence that long-run exposure shows no lasting effect",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Temperature and Human Capital in the Short and Long Run",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists",
      "first_author": "Graff Zivin",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 316,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_694177.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cho H (2017). The effects of summer heat on academic achievement: A cohort analysis. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 83:185-196.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jeem.2017.03.005",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2017.03.005",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "In Korea, each additional day above 34 C lowered math and English scores, which replicates the heat-learning relationship outside the US",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The effects of summer heat on academic achievement: A cohort analysis",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Environmental Economics and Management",
      "first_author": "Cho",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 116,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Mendell MJ, Eliseeva EA, Davies MM, et al. (2013). Association of classroom ventilation with reduced illness absence: A prospective study in California elementary schools. Indoor Air 23(6):515-528.",
     "doi": "10.1111/ina.12042",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12042",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "In 162 classrooms over two years, each 1 L/s-person more ventilation cut illness absence 1.6 percent; every district had median ventilation below the 7.1 L/s-person state standard",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Association of classroom ventilation with reduced illness absence: a prospective study in California elementary schools",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Indoor Air",
      "first_author": "Mendell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 302,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_ina_12042.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Haverinen-Shaughnessy U, Moschandreas DJ, Shaughnessy RJ (2011). Association between substandard classroom ventilation rates and students' academic achievement. Indoor Air 21(2):121-131.",
     "doi": "10.1111/j.1600-0668.2010.00686.x",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2010.00686.x",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "In 100 US elementary classrooms, 87 percent were below the ASHRAE rate and the share of students passing standardized math tests rose about 2.9 percent per L/s-person of ventilation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Association between substandard classroom ventilation rates and students’ academic achievement",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Indoor Air",
      "first_author": "Haverinen-Shaughnessy",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 310,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_j_1600_0668_2010_00686_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Haverinen-Shaughnessy U, Shaughnessy RJ (2015). Effects of classroom ventilation rate and temperature on students' test scores. PLOS ONE 10(8):e0136165.",
     "doi": "10.1371/journal.pone.0136165",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136165",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "In 140 fifth-grade classrooms, math scores rose 0.5 percent per L/s-person of ventilation (0.9 to 7.1 range) and 0.5 percent per degree C cooler within 20 to 25 C, controlling for prior scores",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of Classroom Ventilation Rate and Temperature on Students’ Test Scores",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "PLOS ONE",
      "first_author": "Haverinen-Shaughnessy",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 196,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1371_journal_pone_0136165.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Petersen S, Jensen KL, Pedersen ALS, Rasmussen HS (2016). The effect of increased classroom ventilation rate indicated by reduced CO2 concentration on the performance of schoolwork by children. Indoor Air 26(3):366-379.",
     "doi": "10.1111/ina.12210",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12210",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Double-blind crossover in four classrooms: raising outdoor air from 1.7 to 6.6 L/s-person increased correct answers 3 to 7 percent on all four tasks",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The effect of increased classroom ventilation rate indicated by reduced CO<sub>2</sub>concentration on the performance of schoolwork by children",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Indoor Air",
      "first_author": "Petersen",
      "title_overlap": 0.91
     },
     "cited_by": 101,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_ina_12210.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wargocki P, Porras-Salazar JA, Contreras-Espinoza S (2019). The relationship between classroom temperature and children's performance in school. Building and Environment 157:197-204.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.04.046",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.04.046",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Pooled studies show children's task performance improves as classroom temperature falls from 30 to 20 C, by about 20 percent in speed",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The relationship between classroom temperature and children’s performance in school",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Building and Environment",
      "first_author": "Wargocki",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 191,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wargocki P, Porras-Salazar JA, Contreras-Espinoza S, Bahnfleth W (2020). The relationships between classroom air quality and children's performance in school. Building and Environment 173:106749.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106749",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106749",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Pooled model: cutting classroom CO2 from 2100 to 900 ppm improves task speed about 12 percent and errors 2 percent, and from 4100 to 1000 ppm raises daily attendance about 2.5 percent",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The relationships between classroom air quality and children’s performance in school",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Building and Environment",
      "first_author": "Wargocki",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 272,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fisk WJ (2017). The ventilation problem in schools: Literature review. Indoor Air 27(6):1039-1051.",
     "doi": "10.1111/ina.12403",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12403",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Most classrooms ventilate below standards; higher ventilation is consistently associated with better performance and fewer absences, with no evidence of a threshold below the ASHRAE rate",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The ventilation problem in schools: literature review",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Indoor Air",
      "first_author": "Fisk",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 338,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_ina_12403.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gaihre S, Semple S, Miller J, Fielding S, Turner S (2014). Classroom carbon dioxide concentration, school attendance, and educational attainment. Journal of School Health 84(9):569-574.",
     "doi": "10.1111/josh.12183",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12183",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Scottish primary classrooms with higher CO2 had lower attendance; attainment association was not significant",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Classroom Carbon Dioxide Concentration, School Attendance, and Educational Attainment",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "Gaihre",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 131,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_josh_12183.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Stafford TM (2015). Indoor air quality and academic performance. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 70:34-50.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jeem.2014.11.002",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2014.11.002",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Texas school renovations that corrected indoor air quality problems raised test scores relative to renovations that did not",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Indoor air quality and academic performance",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Environmental Economics and Management",
      "first_author": "Stafford",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 181,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "ASHRAE. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation and acceptable indoor air quality (classroom outdoor air rate: 10 cfm per person plus 0.12 cfm per square foot).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/bookstore/standards-62-1-62-2",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Engineering standard for minimum classroom ventilation rates referenced by most building codes",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    },
    {
     "ref": "ASHRAE (2023). ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 241, Control of infectious aerosols (equivalent clean airflow target of 20 L/s per person for classrooms in infection risk management mode).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/bookstore/ashrae-standard-241-control-of-infectious-aerosols",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Standard for clean-air delivery during periods of elevated respiratory illness, adopted as guidance by CDC and EPA",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of classrooms with mechanical cooling and share of instructional hours above 78 F, from building management system or classroom data loggers; classroom CO2 (share of occupied hours above 1,000 ppm) from continuous monitors; measured outdoor air rate per person at commissioning; illness absence by building; number of heat-related early dismissals.",
   "standard": "Every occupied classroom is kept between 68 and 78 F during instruction, every classroom is ventilated at or above the ASHRAE 62.1 outdoor air rate with MERV-13 filtration and continuous CO2 monitoring held below 1,000 ppm, and the district has a written heat response plan with a trigger temperature, cooling priorities and a capital plan to air-condition every classroom.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall maintain every occupied classroom at a temperature between 68 and 78 degrees F during instructional time. When a classroom cannot be held at or below 82 degrees F, the principal shall relocate instruction to a cooled space, and no student shall be taught in a room at or above 88 degrees F. The Director of Facilities shall install a continuous carbon dioxide monitor in every classroom, shall operate ventilation systems to supply at least the outdoor air rate in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1 with filters rated MERV-13 or higher, and shall investigate and correct any classroom whose CO2 exceeds 1,000 ppm for more than 10 percent of occupied hours in a month. The Director of Facilities shall report to the Board by September 30 of each year the classrooms without mechanical cooling, the number of instructional hours above 78 degrees F by building during the prior year, the monthly CO2 exceedance rate by building, filter replacement records, and a prioritized capital plan to provide cooling and code-rate ventilation in every classroom, and the Superintendent shall include that plan in the annual capital budget request.",
   "red_flags": [
    "thermostats shall be set no lower than 78 degrees in cooling season (energy policy overriding learning)",
    "windows shall remain closed at all times (security policy with no ventilation substitute)",
    "portable air cleaners and fans are prohibited in classrooms",
    "no heat response plan or trigger temperature",
    "ventilation addressed only as a maintenance item without a rate or CO2 standard",
    "energy savings policy with no classroom temperature range"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "temperature",
     "air conditioning",
     "HVAC",
     "ventilation",
     "indoor air quality",
     "carbon dioxide",
     "CO2",
     "heat",
     "thermostat",
     "energy conservation",
     "MERV",
     "air filter"
    ],
    "regex": "air condition|\\bHVAC\\b|ventilat|indoor air|carbon dioxide|\\bCO2\\b|thermostat|classroom temperature|excessive heat|heat (plan|index|advisory)|MERV"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal classroom temperature or ventilation standard; ASHRAE 62.1 is adopted through state building and mechanical codes for new construction only, and ASHRAE 241 (2023) is voluntary. California Title 24 requires CO2 sensors in classrooms using demand-controlled ventilation and sets a 7.1 L/s-person school ventilation rate. New York's 2024 school heat law (effective September 2025) requires relief measures when a classroom reaches 82 F and bars occupancy at 88 F or above. OSHA has no indoor temperature standard for schools. ESSER funds (through 2024) paid for many HVAC upgrades; the EPA Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools program is voluntary guidance.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Facilities, with the Superintendent accountable for the capital budget request",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Facilities inventories every classroom within 30 days, recording whether it has mechanical cooling, its ventilation system type, and its current filter rating.",
     "The Director of Facilities installs data loggers or uses the building management system in every building within 60 days to record classroom temperature during instructional hours.",
     "The Director of Facilities orders continuous CO2 monitors for every classroom within 60 days and begins installation in the buildings with the highest share of classrooms without cooling.",
     "The Superintendent issues a written heat response procedure within 90 days that directs principals to relocate instruction when a classroom cannot be held at or below 82 F and bars teaching in any room at or above 88 F.",
     "The Director of Facilities replaces all filters with MERV-13 or higher within 90 days in every system that can accept them and lists the systems that cannot."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Facilities completes CO2 monitor installation in every classroom and sets a monthly report of the share of occupied hours above 1,000 ppm by building.",
     "The Director of Facilities commissions a measurement of outdoor air rate per person in each building and schedules corrective work for every system below the ASHRAE 62.1 rate.",
     "The Director of Facilities delivers the first annual report to the Board by September 30, including the prioritized capital plan to cool and ventilate every classroom.",
     "The Superintendent includes the capital plan in the next annual capital budget request to the Board."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Facilities investigates and corrects every classroom whose CO2 exceeds 1,000 ppm for more than 10 percent of occupied hours in any month and logs the fix.",
     "The Director of Facilities reports to the Board each September 30 on classrooms without cooling, instructional hours above 78 F by building, monthly CO2 exceedance by building, and filter replacement records.",
     "The Superintendent requests capital funding each year until every classroom has mechanical cooling and code-rate ventilation."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of classrooms with mechanical cooling, instructional hours above 78 F by building, share of occupied classroom hours with CO2 above 1,000 ppm, measured outdoor air rate per person at commissioning, illness absence by building, and number of heat-related early dismissals",
    "baseline": "First-year inventory and logger data: count of classrooms without mechanical cooling, instructional hours above 78 F in the prior year, and monthly CO2 exceedance rate once monitors are installed",
    "target": "Within 1 year every classroom has a continuous CO2 monitor and no building exceeds 1,000 ppm for more than 10 percent of occupied hours in any month; within 3 years the share of classrooms without mechanical cooling and the instructional hours above 78 F fall each year, no student is taught at or above 88 F, and illness absence by building declines",
    "benchmark": "Classroom temperature held between 68 and 78 F; CO2 below 1,000 ppm; outdoor air at or above the ASHRAE 62.1 rate (California sets 7.1 L/s-person); MERV-13 filtration; New York law requires relief at 82 F and bars occupancy at 88 F",
    "report": "Annual report from the Director of Facilities to the Board by September 30, with monthly CO2 exceedance rates by building available to the Board on request"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "temp-range",
     "text": "The policy requires every occupied classroom to be kept between 68 and 78 F during instruction.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "ashrae-ventilation-rate",
     "text": "The policy requires every classroom to be ventilated at or above the ASHRAE 62.1 outdoor air rate.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "merv13-filtration",
     "text": "The policy requires MERV-13 filtration for classroom ventilation.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "co2-monitoring",
     "text": "The policy requires continuous CO2 monitoring in classrooms held below 1,000 ppm.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "heat-response-plan",
     "text": "The policy requires a written heat response plan with a trigger temperature and cooling priorities.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "ac-capital-plan",
     "text": "The policy requires a capital plan to air-condition every classroom.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "water-and-lead",
   "domain": "Lead in school drinking water",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "discipline",
    "physical-health",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Lead harms learning at every measured level: in Rhode Island, each 1 ug/dL lower average preschool blood lead cut the chance of scoring substantially below proficient in third-grade reading by about 1 percentage point on a 12 percent base, Swedish and North Carolina natural experiments find the same for school grades, crime and suspensions, and Flint's water crisis lowered math achievement and raised special education classification district-wide. Lead in school water is common: in seven state testing programs 13 to 81 percent of tested schools had at least one outlet above 5 ppb, and 37 percent of US districts that tested found elevated lead, but no study links school-water lead itself to achievement, so testing policy rests on the blood-lead evidence plus prevalence data.",
   "effect": "Below-proficient reading -0.96 pct points per 1 ug/dL lower blood lead (base 12%); Flint: math achievement down and special education classification up across the district; 37% of testing districts found elevated lead (GAO); 4 of 7 states found more than 20% of schools with an outlet above 5 ppb.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "The causal chain is indirect: the strong studies measure blood lead from all sources (paint, soil, water) and no study isolates school drinking water's contribution to blood lead or achievement, and Flint's effects appeared even in homes with copper service lines, which points to stress and disruption as well as lead. Water is a smaller lead source than paint and dust for most children, and a child drinks only part of the day's water at school. Sampling results depend heavily on protocol (first draw versus flushed, stagnation time, which outlets), so a single clean test does not prove safety and a single high test may reflect one fixture. Remediation costs are real (fixture replacement, filtered bottle fillers, re-testing every few years) and there is no agreed health-based action level for schools: EPA uses 15 ppb for water systems and recommends schools act at 5 ppb or lower, AAP recommends 1 ppb.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Aizer A, Currie J, Simon P, Vivier P (2018). Do low levels of blood lead reduce children's future test scores? American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 10(1):307-341.",
     "doi": "10.1257/app.20160404",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20160404",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Linked preschool blood lead to third-grade scores for Rhode Island children: a 1-unit lower blood lead cut the probability of scoring substantially below proficient by 0.96 points in reading and 0.79 in math",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Do Low Levels of Blood Lead Reduce Children's Future Test Scores?",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Applied Economics",
      "first_author": "Aizer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 113,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_app_20160404.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Aizer A, Currie J (2019). Lead and juvenile delinquency: New evidence from linked birth, school, and juvenile detention records. Review of Economics and Statistics 101(4):575-587.",
     "doi": "10.1162/rest_a_00814",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00814",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Higher preschool blood lead raised school suspensions and juvenile detention, using distance to roads and lead remediation as instruments",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Lead and Juvenile Delinquency: New Evidence from Linked Birth, School, and Juvenile Detention Records",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Review of Economics and Statistics",
      "first_author": "Aizer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 97,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_rest_a_00814.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gronqvist H, Nilsson JP, Robling PO (2020). Understanding how low levels of early lead exposure affect children's life trajectories. Journal of Political Economy 128(9):3376-3433.",
     "doi": "10.1086/708725",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1086/708725",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Sweden's phase-out of leaded gasoline shows early lead exposure lowers school grades, cognitive and noncognitive skills and raises crime, with effects at low exposure levels",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Understanding How Low Levels of Early Lead Exposure Affect Children’s Life Trajectories",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Political Economy",
      "first_author": "Grönqvist",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 81,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_708725.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Billings SB, Schnepel KT (2018). Life after lead: Effects of early interventions for children exposed to lead. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 10(3):315-344.",
     "doi": "10.1257/app.20160056",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20160056",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "In Charlotte, children who received lead intervention after crossing the blood-lead threshold had better test scores and fewer school suspensions and crimes than near-threshold peers who did not",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Life after Lead: Effects of Early Interventions for Children Exposed to Lead",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Applied Economics",
      "first_author": "Billings",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 85,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_app_20160056.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sorensen LC, Fox AM, Jung H, Martin EG (2019). Lead exposure and academic achievement: Evidence from childhood lead poisoning prevention efforts. Journal of Population Economics 32(1):179-218.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s00148-018-0707-y",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-018-0707-y",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "New York counties that reduced childhood lead exposure saw later gains in school test scores",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Lead exposure and academic achievement: evidence from childhood lead poisoning prevention efforts",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Population Economics",
      "first_author": "Sorensen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 41,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, et al. (2005). Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: An international pooled analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives 113(7):894-899.",
     "doi": "10.1289/ehp.7688",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7688",
     "year": 2005,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Pooled cohorts (1,333 children) show IQ loss is steepest below 10 ug/dL, which is why no blood lead level is considered safe",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Low-Level Environmental Lead Exposure and Children’s Intellectual Function: An International Pooled Analysis",
      "year": 2005,
      "journal": "Environmental Health Perspectives",
      "first_author": "Lanphear",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 2211,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1289_ehp_7688.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Reyes JW (2015). Lead exposure and behavior: Effects on antisocial and risky behavior among children and adolescents. Economic Inquiry 53(3):1580-1605.",
     "doi": "10.1111/ecin.12202",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12202",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Childhood lead exposure raises behavior problems, aggression and risky behavior in adolescence",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "LEAD EXPOSURE AND BEHAVIOR: EFFECTS ON ANTISOCIAL AND RISKY BEHAVIOR AMONG CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Economic Inquiry",
      "first_author": "Reyes",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 126,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_ecin_12202.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hanna-Attisha M, LaChance J, Sadler RC, Champney Schnepp A (2016). Elevated blood lead levels in children associated with the Flint drinking water crisis: A spatial analysis of risk and public health response. American Journal of Public Health 106(2):283-290.",
     "doi": "10.2105/AJPH.2015.303003",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.303003",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Drinking water lead translates into child blood lead: the share of Flint children with elevated blood lead rose from 2.4 to 4.9 percent after the water switch",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Children Associated With the Flint Drinking Water Crisis: A Spatial Analysis of Risk and Public Health Response",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "American Journal of Public Health",
      "first_author": "Hanna-Attisha",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1123,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_2105_AJPH_2015_303003.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Trejo S, Yeomans-Maldonado G, Jacob B (2024). The effects of the Flint water crisis on the educational outcomes of school-age children. Science Advances 10(5):eadk4737.",
     "doi": "10.1126/sciadv.adk4737",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adk4737",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Synthetic control on Michigan data: the crisis lowered math achievement and raised special needs classification, largest for low-income and younger students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of the Flint water crisis on the educational outcomes of school-age children",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "Science Advances",
      "first_author": "Trejo",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 9,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1126_sciadv_adk4737.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cradock AL, Barrett JL, Poole MK, Flax CN, Vollmer L, Hecht C (2022). Lead concentrations in US school drinking water: Testing programs, prevalence, and policy opportunities, 2016-2018. American Journal of Public Health 112(S7):S679-S689.",
     "doi": "10.2105/AJPH.2022.306961",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306961",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "In 5,688 schools across 7 state programs, 13 to 81 percent of schools had a sample above 5 ppb and every state found outlets above its action level; the authors recommend testing all outlets",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Lead Concentrations in US School Drinking Water: Testing Programs, Prevalence, and Policy Opportunities, 2016‒2018",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "American Journal of Public Health",
      "first_author": "Cradock",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 10,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_2105_AJPH_2022_306961.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lambrinidou Y, Triantafyllidou S, Edwards M (2010). Failing our children: Lead in U.S. school drinking water. NEW SOLUTIONS 20(1):25-47.",
     "doi": "10.2190/NS.022010EOV",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.2190/NS.022010EOV",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Documents the regulatory gap: most schools on municipal water are not required to test, and sampling protocols can mask lead",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Failing Our Children: Lead in U.S. School Drinking Water",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy",
      "first_author": "Lambrinidou",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 31,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_2190_NS_022010EOV.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Council on Environmental Health, American Academy of Pediatrics (2016). Prevention of childhood lead toxicity. Pediatrics 138(1):e20161493.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2016-1493",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1493",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "AAP recommends that school and child care drinking water not exceed 1 ppb lead and that fountains be tested",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Prevention of Childhood Lead Toxicity",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 301,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2016_1493.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Government Accountability Office (2018). K-12 Education: Lead testing of school drinking water would benefit from improved federal guidance. GAO-18-382.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-18-382",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "In 2016-17, 43 percent of districts tested for lead, 41 percent had not, and 37 percent of those that tested found elevated lead",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Environmental Protection Agency. 3Ts for reducing lead in drinking water in schools and child care facilities (Training, Testing, Taking Action).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/3ts-reducing-lead-drinking-water",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Voluntary federal protocol for sampling every outlet (first-draw and flush samples), remediation and communication",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of drinking and cooking outlets tested within the last 3 years, and share above 5 ppb, from the district's published results; days between a result above the action level and outlet shutoff; number of filtered bottle-filling stations per building; share of families notified within 30 days; blood lead screening rates from the county health department where available.",
   "standard": "Every outlet used for drinking or cooking in every building is tested for lead with first-draw samples at least every 3 years and after any plumbing work, any outlet above 5 ppb is taken out of service within 24 hours until fixed or replaced, results are posted publicly within 30 days, and every building has filtered drinking stations.",
   "model_clause": "The Director of Facilities shall test every outlet used for drinking or food preparation in every district building for lead using the sampling protocol in the EPA 3Ts guidance, with the initial test of every outlet completed by June 30, 2027 and each outlet retested at least once every 3 years and within 90 days after any plumbing repair or replacement affecting it. Any outlet with a result at or above 5 parts per billion shall be removed from service within 24 hours of receipt of the result and shall not be returned to service until replacement or filtration and a follow-up sample below 5 parts per billion. The Director of Facilities shall post all results by outlet on the district website and notify families and staff of each building within 30 calendar days of receipt, and shall install at least one filtered bottle-filling station certified to NSF/ANSI 53 for lead on every floor of every building, with filters replaced on the manufacturer's schedule and the replacement logged. The Director of Facilities shall report to the Board by September 30 of each year the outlets tested, the results, the outlets removed from service and their status, and the filter replacement log.",
   "red_flags": [
    "testing shall be conducted as required by the local water utility only",
    "action level set at 15 or 20 parts per billion",
    "flushing shall be used as the sole remediation",
    "results provided to parents upon request only",
    "testing limited to a sample of outlets per building",
    "no retest interval or no requirement to test after plumbing work",
    "no provision for lead in water at all"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "lead",
     "drinking water",
     "water quality",
     "water testing",
     "drinking fountain",
     "bottle filling",
     "plumbing",
     "flushing",
     "parts per billion",
     "filter"
    ],
    "regex": "lead (in|testing|contamination|level)|drinking water|water (quality|testing|fountain)|parts per billion|\\bppb\\b|bottle[- ]fill|point[- ]of[- ]use filter"
   },
   "law_notes": "Schools on municipal water are not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act; the 2021 Lead and Copper Rule Revisions (40 CFR 141.92) require community water systems to offer sampling of five outlets in each elementary school and child care facility over a five-year cycle and on request for secondary schools, and the October 2024 Lead and Copper Rule Improvements continue the schools program with lists of eligible facilities due to states by November 2027. The WIIN Act of 2016 funds a voluntary EPA grant program for school testing and remediation. State laws vary: New York requires testing of every outlet every 3 years with a 5 ppb action level (10 NYCRR Subpart 67-4, amended 2022), New Jersey requires testing every 3 years, Illinois (415 ILCS 5/17.12) requires testing in schools built before 2000, California AB 746 (2017) required water systems to test schools built before 2010, and Michigan's 2023 Filter First law requires filtered stations in every school.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Facilities",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Facilities inventories every outlet used for drinking or food preparation in every district building, assigns each a unique identifier, and files the inventory with the Superintendent within 60 days.",
     "The Director of Facilities adopts a written sampling protocol following the EPA 3Ts guidance, contracts a certified laboratory, and asks the community water system whether it will sample eligible elementary schools under 40 CFR 141.92 at no cost.",
     "The Business Manager applies for WIIN Act school lead testing and remediation grant funds and any state testing program money within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Facilities completes first-draw testing of all outlets in the earliest-built elementary buildings within 90 days and removes any outlet at or above 5 ppb from service within 24 hours of the result.",
     "The Director of Communications prepares the results web page by outlet and the family and staff notification template so that posting within 30 days of results is possible from the first batch."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Facilities completes initial testing of every outlet in every building, posts results by outlet on the district website, and notifies families and staff of each building within 30 calendar days of receipt.",
     "The Director of Facilities replaces or filters every outlet at or above 5 ppb and returns each to service only after a follow-up sample below 5 ppb, keeping a status log for the Board.",
     "The Director of Facilities installs at least one NSF/ANSI 53 certified filtered bottle-filling station on every floor of every building and starts a filter replacement log on the manufacturer's schedule.",
     "The Director of Facilities delivers the first annual report to the Board by September 30 listing outlets tested, results, outlets removed from service and their status, and the filter replacement log."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Facilities retests each outlet at least once every 3 years and within 90 days after any plumbing repair or replacement affecting it, with the retest calendar reviewed each June.",
     "The Director of Facilities reports to the Board by September 30 each year, and the Board checks that no outlet above 5 ppb stayed in service more than 24 hours after its result was received.",
     "The Superintendent requests county health department blood lead screening rates each year and includes them in the annual report where available."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of drinking and cooking outlets tested within the last 3 years, share of tested outlets at or above 5 ppb, days between a result at or above 5 ppb and outlet shutoff, number of NSF/ANSI 53 filtered bottle-filling stations per building floor, and share of families notified within 30 days, all drawn from the district's published results and the annual Board report.",
    "baseline": "Most districts have no complete outlet inventory or test record; across seven state testing programs 13 to 81 percent of tested schools had at least one outlet above 5 ppb, and 37 percent of US districts that tested found elevated lead.",
    "target": "100 percent of drinking and cooking outlets tested by June 30, 2027 and retested within every 3 year cycle thereafter; every outlet at or above 5 ppb out of service within 24 hours of the result; 100 percent of results posted and families notified within 30 days; at least one filtered station on every floor of every building by the end of year one; and the share of outlets at or above 5 ppb falling each cycle toward zero.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric benchmark for school-water lead and achievement, since no study links school-water lead itself to achievement; the 5 ppb action level and 3 year retest cycle follow New York 10 NYCRR Subpart 67-4 and New Jersey law, and the filtered station requirement follows Michigan's 2023 Filter First law. The 1 ug/dL blood lead effect on reading is the supporting evidence, not a district target.",
    "report": "The Director of Facilities reports to the Board by September 30 each year, with results posted by outlet on the district website within 30 days of receipt and the filter replacement log attached."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "all-outlets-tested-3yr-first-draw",
     "text": "The policy requires first-draw lead testing of every outlet used for drinking or cooking in every building at least every 3 years.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "test-after-plumbing-work",
     "text": "The policy requires outlets to be retested for lead after any plumbing work.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "action-level-5ppb-24h",
     "text": "The policy requires any outlet above 5 ppb to be taken out of service within 24 hours until fixed or replaced.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "post-results-30-days",
     "text": "The policy requires lead test results to be posted publicly within 30 days.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "filtered-stations-every-building",
     "text": "The policy requires every building to have filtered drinking stations.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "physical-education-minutes",
   "domain": "Physical education minutes and activity policy",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "physical-health",
    "achievement",
    "discipline",
    "mental-health"
   ],
   "finding": "Meta-analyses of experimental studies find that physical activity delivered through physical education improves classroom behavior and academic outcomes, with the gains concentrated in programs that raise the quality and intensity of PE lessons (cognition g 0.38, academic performance g 0.15) rather than in simply adding minutes (academic g 0.09, not significant). Instrumental-variable estimates using state PE mandates show more PE time increases physical activity and lowers obesity among fifth-grade boys without crowding out test scores. SHAPE America's standard is 150 minutes per week in elementary and 225 in secondary school.",
   "effect": "Quality-focused PE interventions: cognition +0.38 SD, academic performance +0.15 SD; PA interventions: math +0.21 SD, on-task behavior +0.77 SD; more PE time: no crowd-out of test scores, lower BMI z-score for boys; added minutes alone: academic +0.09 SD (null)",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Adding PE minutes without changing lesson quality has little measurable academic effect. Packham and Street (2019) used a regression discontinuity on Texas Fitness Now, a 37 million dollar daily-PE mandate for low-income middle schools, and found no overall fitness improvement, no test-score or attendance gain, and some evidence of lower attendance and more disciplinary incidents. Cawley, Meyerhoefer and Newhouse (2007) found binding state PE requirements raised activity but not weight outcomes for high school students. Singh et al. (2019) rated only 11 of 58 PA intervention studies as high quality and called the evidence on overall academic performance inconclusive, while confirming math benefits. Observed PE lessons average well under the 50 percent moderate-to-vigorous activity target, so minutes on a schedule overstate activity delivered.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Garcia-Hermoso A, Ramirez-Velez R, Lubans DR, Izquierdo M (2021). Effects of physical education interventions on cognition and academic performance outcomes in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine 55(21):1224-1232.",
     "doi": "10.1136/bjsports-2021-104112",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "19 trials, 8,676 youth: quality-based PE improved cognition (g 0.38) and academic performance (g 0.15); quantity-only PE had a null academic effect (g 0.09) and did not harm performance",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of physical education interventions on cognition and academic performance outcomes in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "British Journal of Sports Medicine",
      "first_author": "García-Hermoso",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 123,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_bjsports_2021_104112.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Alvarez-Bueno C, Pesce C, Cavero-Redondo I, Sanchez-Lopez M, Garrido-Miguel M, Martinez-Vizcaino V (2017). Academic achievement and physical activity: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics 140(6):e20171498.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2017-1498",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "26 intervention studies, 10,205 children: PA programs improved math (0.21), reading (0.13), composite scores (0.26) and time on task (0.77)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Academic Achievement and Physical Activity: A Meta-analysis",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Álvarez-Bueno",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 391,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2017_1498.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Singh AS, Saliasi E, van den Berg V, et al. (2019). Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children and adolescents: a novel combination of a systematic review and recommendations from an expert panel. British Journal of Sports Medicine 53(10):640-647.",
     "doi": "10.1136/bjsports-2017-098136",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence and nuance: only 11 of 58 studies high quality; evidence inconclusive for overall academic performance, strong for math",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children and adolescents: a novel combination of a systematic review and recommendations from an expert panel",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "British Journal of Sports Medicine",
      "first_author": "Singh",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 588,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_bjsports_2017_098136.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Donnelly JE, Hillman CH, Castelli D, et al. (2016). Physical activity, fitness, cognitive function, and academic achievement in children: A systematic review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 48(6):1197-1222.",
     "doi": "10.1249/MSS.0000000000000901",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "ACSM systematic review: physical activity and fitness are positively related to cognitive function and achievement; more PE time does not harm achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Physical Activity, Fitness, Cognitive Function, and Academic Achievement in Children",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise",
      "first_author": "Donnelly",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1866,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1249_MSS_0000000000000901.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cawley J, Frisvold D, Meyerhoefer C (2013). The impact of physical education on obesity among elementary school children. Journal of Health Economics 32(4):743-755.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jhealeco.2013.04.006",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "State PE minute mandates as instrument (ECLS-K): PE time lowers BMI z-score and obesity among fifth-grade boys; no crowd-out of academic time or test scores",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of physical education on obesity among elementary school children",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Journal of Health Economics",
      "first_author": "Cawley",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 124,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Packham A, Street B (2019). The effects of physical education on student fitness, achievement, and behavior. Economics of Education Review 72:1-18.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.04.003",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: Texas daily-PE mandate for low-income middle schools produced no overall fitness, test-score or attendance gains and some rise in disciplinary incidents",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The effects of physical education on student fitness, achievement, and behavior",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Packham",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 34,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cawley J, Meyerhoefer C, Newhouse D (2007). The impact of state physical education requirements on youth physical activity and overweight. Health Economics 16(12):1287-1301.",
     "doi": "10.1002/hec.1218",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2007,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Binding state PE requirements add about 31 minutes of weekly in-class activity and raise girls' vigorous activity, with no effect on BMI or overweight",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of state physical education requirements on youth physical activity and overweight",
      "year": 2007,
      "journal": "Health Economics",
      "first_author": "Cawley",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 169,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_hec_1218.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lonsdale C, Rosenkranz RR, Peralta LR, Bennie A, Fahey P, Lubans DR (2013). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions designed to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in school physical education lessons. Preventive Medicine 56(2):152-161.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.12.004",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "14 studies: interventions raised the share of PE lesson time in moderate-to-vigorous activity by 24 percent (SMD 0.62)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions designed to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in school physical education lessons",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Preventive Medicine",
      "first_author": "Lonsdale",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 453,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hollis JL, Williams AJ, Sutherland R, et al. (2016). A systematic review and meta-analysis of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels in elementary school physical education lessons. Preventive Medicine 86:34-54.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.11.018",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Elementary PE lessons average well below the 50 percent moderate-to-vigorous activity target, so scheduled minutes overstate activity delivered",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A systematic review and meta-analysis of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels in elementary school physical education lessons",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Preventive Medicine",
      "first_author": "Hollis",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 260,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "SHAPE America (2015). The essential components of physical education. Reston, VA: SHAPE America.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.shapeamerica.org/upload/TheEssentialComponentsOfPhysicalEducation.pdf",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Professional standard: 150 minutes per week of PE in elementary and 225 minutes per week in middle and high school, taught by certified teachers, with at least 50 percent of class time in moderate-to-vigorous activity",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Scheduled PE minutes per week by grade and building (master schedule); share of PE sections taught by a certified physical educator; observed share of PE lesson time in moderate-to-vigorous activity from a sampled SOFIT or equivalent observation each year; waiver and substitution counts; fitness assessment results where the state requires them.",
   "standard": "Every student receives at least 150 minutes per week of PE in elementary and 225 minutes per week in secondary grades, taught by a certified physical educator, with no waivers for athletics or other courses and no PE time withheld as punishment.",
   "model_clause": "Every student in kindergarten through grade 5 shall receive at least 150 minutes per week of physical education, and every student in grades 6 through 12 at least 225 minutes per week, taught by a teacher certified in physical education and designed so that at least half of each class period is spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Recess, athletics, marching band, JROTC and online courses shall not substitute for physical education, and physical education shall not be withheld or assigned as a disciplinary consequence. Elementary students shall additionally receive daily recess under Policy on Recess. The Director of Curriculum shall certify each building's PE minutes by grade and the certification status of each PE teacher to the Superintendent by September 30 of each year, and the Superintendent shall report these figures, the results of at least one observed-activity sample per building, and a dated correction plan for any shortfall to the Board by December 1 of each year.",
   "red_flags": [
    "PE waived for athletics, band, JROTC or academic courses",
    "PE minutes defined as a range or 'as scheduling permits'",
    "recess or classroom activity breaks counted as PE",
    "PE taught by classroom teachers without certification",
    "physical activity used as punishment or withheld as punishment",
    "no weekly minute floor stated for any grade span"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "physical education",
     "PE",
     "physical activity",
     "fitness",
     "wellness policy"
    ],
    "regex": "physical education|\\bP\\.?E\\.?\\b|physical activity|physical fitness"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal minimum; the federal Local School Wellness Policy rule (7 CFR 210.31) requires districts in the school meal programs to set physical activity goals. State minute mandates vary: California Education Code 51210 requires 200 minutes per 10 school days in grades 1-6 and 51222 requires 400 minutes per 10 days in grades 7-12; Texas Education Code 28.002(l) requires 30 minutes daily or 135 minutes weekly of structured activity in K-5. Most states require PE in unspecified amounts and allow substitutions; see SHAPE America's Shape of the Nation state profiles.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Curriculum, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Curriculum pulls each building's master schedule and records scheduled PE minutes per week by grade, flagging every grade below 150 minutes in K-5 or 225 minutes in 6-12.",
     "The Human Resources Director verifies the physical education certification of every teacher assigned a PE section and lists any section taught by a non-certified teacher.",
     "Each principal reports to the Director of Curriculum every current waiver or substitution of athletics, marching band, JROTC, recess or online coursework for PE, and every instance in the last year of PE withheld as discipline.",
     "The Director of Curriculum and the Student Services Director revise the student discipline code to remove PE withholding as a consequence and notify staff in writing.",
     "The Superintendent names a PE lead who selects SOFIT or an equivalent observation tool and trains at least two observers before the end of the 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal rebuilds the master schedule for the next school year so that every grade meets the 150 or 225 minute standard, and the Director of Curriculum certifies the minutes and certification status to the Superintendent by September 30.",
     "The PE lead completes at least one observed-activity sample per building and records the share of lesson time spent in moderate-to-vigorous activity.",
     "The Human Resources Director posts and fills certified PE positions for any section still taught by a non-certified teacher, or the Superintendent presents a dated hiring plan to the Board.",
     "The Superintendent reports minutes by grade and building, certification share, observation results, waiver counts and a dated correction plan for any shortfall to the Board by December 1."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Curriculum certifies PE minutes and teacher certification to the Superintendent by September 30 every year, and the Superintendent reports to the Board by December 1 every year.",
     "The PE lead repeats at least one observed-activity sample per building each year and uses the results to plan PE teacher professional development on lesson intensity.",
     "The Superintendent includes PE minutes and activity goals in the triennial Local School Wellness Policy assessment required by 7 CFR 210.31."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of grade levels in each building scheduled for at least 150 minutes per week of PE (K-5) or 225 minutes per week (6-12); share of PE sections taught by a certified physical educator; observed share of PE lesson time in moderate-to-vigorous activity; count of waivers, substitutions and disciplinary withholdings.",
    "baseline": "Scheduled PE minutes per week by grade and building from the master schedule in the first 90 days, certification status of each PE section from Human Resources, waiver and substitution counts from principals, and the first observed-activity sample taken in year one.",
    "target": "By the September 30 certification in year two, every grade in every building is scheduled for at least 150 minutes (K-5) or 225 minutes (6-12) of PE per week, every PE section is taught by a certified physical educator, waivers, substitutions and disciplinary withholdings are zero, and the observed share of lesson time in moderate-to-vigorous activity is at least half in each building and rising from baseline in each later year.",
    "benchmark": "SHAPE America's standard of 150 minutes per week in elementary and 225 minutes per week in secondary school, with at least half of class time in moderate-to-vigorous activity per the model clause; by comparison, California requires 200 minutes per 10 days in grades 1-6 and 400 minutes per 10 days in grades 7-12, and Texas requires 135 minutes weekly in K-5. The research supports quality and intensity over added minutes alone, so the activity-share measure carries as much weight as the minutes count.",
    "report": "Superintendent's annual PE report to the Board by December 1, built on the Director of Curriculum's September 30 certification, with minutes by grade and building, certification share, observation results, waiver and withholding counts, and a dated correction plan for any shortfall."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "minute-floors",
     "text": "The policy guarantees every student at least 150 minutes per week of PE in elementary grades and 225 minutes per week in secondary grades.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "certified-educator",
     "text": "The policy requires that PE be taught by a certified physical educator.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-waivers",
     "text": "The policy allows no waivers from PE for athletics, band, JROTC, or other courses.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-punishment-withholding",
     "text": "The policy prohibits withholding PE time as punishment.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "recess",
   "domain": "Recess",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "climate",
    "discipline",
    "physical-health",
    "mental-health",
    "achievement"
   ],
   "finding": "Daily recess is associated with better classroom behavior and attention: in a national sample of 11,000 third graders, children with at least one daily recess of 15 or more minutes had better teacher-rated class behavior, a within-subject experiment found fourth graders more on task and less fidgety on recess days, and a cluster-randomized trial of a structured-recess program (Playworks) in 27 to 29 schools reduced teacher-reported bullying and exclusion and cut transition time back to learning. The AAP and CDC state that recess is a necessary break and should not be withheld as punishment or to complete work.",
   "effect": "Daily recess of 15 or more minutes: better teacher-rated class behavior (n about 11,000); recess days: more on task, less fidgeting, all ADHD children benefited; Playworks RCT: less bullying and exclusion, fewer minutes lost in transition; LiiNK four 15-minute recesses: off-task behavior down, attentional focus up",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "No randomized trial varies the amount of recess itself; the Playworks RCT tests a coached recess program, and its accelerometer and student-survey measures of physical activity showed null or marginal effects even where teacher reports were positive. The LiiNK results come from two private schools with no random assignment. Brez and Sheets (2017) found no clear classroom benefit of recess timing in their small experiment. The large national association (Barros et al. 2009) is cross-sectional and children without recess were disproportionately poor, Black and urban, so the comparison is confounded. Recess competes with instructional minutes and requires supervision staffing.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Council on School Health, American Academy of Pediatrics (2013). The crucial role of recess in school. Pediatrics 131(1):183-188.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2012-2993",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "AAP policy statement: recess is a necessary break, should be daily, and should not be withheld for punitive or academic reasons",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Crucial Role of Recess in School",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 225,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2012_2993.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Barros RM, Silver EJ, Stein REK (2009). School recess and group classroom behavior. Pediatrics 123(2):431-436.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2007-2825",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "ECLS-K third graders: at least one daily recess of over 15 minutes associated with better teacher-rated class behavior; 30 percent of children had none or minimal recess",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Recess and Group Classroom Behavior",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Barros",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 255,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2007_2825.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jarrett OS, Maxwell DM, Dickerson C, Hoge P, Davies G, Yetley A (1998). Impact of recess on classroom behavior: Group effects and individual differences. Journal of Educational Research 92(2):121-126.",
     "doi": "10.1080/00220679809597584",
     "url": null,
     "year": 1998,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Within-subject comparison in a no-recess district: fourth graders more on task and less fidgety on recess days; all five children with ADHD benefited",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Impact of Recess on Classroom Behavior: Group Effects and Individual Differences",
      "year": 1998,
      "journal": "The Journal of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Jarrett",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 209,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_00220679809597584.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Beyler N, Bleeker M, James-Burdumy S, Fortson J, Benjamin M (2014). The impact of Playworks on students' physical activity during recess: Findings from a randomized controlled trial. Preventive Medicine 69(Suppl 1):S20-S26.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.10.011",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "27 schools in six cities randomized: teachers reported more intense activity at recess; accelerometer effects marginal and student self-report null",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of Playworks on students' physical activity during recess: Findings from a randomized controlled trial",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Preventive Medicine",
      "first_author": "Beyler",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 29,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fortson J, James-Burdumy S, Bleeker M, Beyler N, London RA, Westrich L, Stokes-Guinan K, Castrechini S (2013). Impact and implementation findings from an experimental evaluation of Playworks: Effects on school climate, academic learning, student social skills and behavior. Mathematica Policy Research and John W. Gardner Center, Stanford University.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.playworks.org/report/impact-and-implementation-findings-from-an-experimental-evaluation-of-playworks/",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "29 schools randomized: teachers in Playworks schools reported less bullying and exclusion at recess and faster transitions from recess to learning",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "London RA, Westrich L, Stokes-Guinan K, McLaughlin M (2015). Playing fair: The contribution of high-functioning recess to overall school climate in low-income elementary schools. Journal of School Health 85(1):53-60.",
     "doi": "10.1111/josh.12216",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Mixed-methods study of low-income elementary schools: well-run recess associated with better school climate and fewer conflicts carried into class",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Playing Fair: The Contribution of High‐Functioning Recess to Overall School Climate in Low‐Income Elementary Schools",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "London",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 54,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_josh_12216.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rhea DJ, Rivchun AP (2018). The LiiNK Project: Effects of multiple recesses and character curriculum on classroom behaviors and listening skills in grades K-2 children. Frontiers in Education 3:9.",
     "doi": "10.3389/feduc.2018.00009",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Four 15-minute recesses per day in an intervention school vs comparison school: off-task behavior fell and attentional focus rose; transitions dropped to under one minute",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The LiiNK Project®: Effects of Multiple Recesses and Character Curriculum on Classroom Behaviors and Listening Skills in Grades K–2 Children",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Frontiers in Education",
      "first_author": "Rhea",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 25,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3389_feduc_2018_00009.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Massey WV, Thalken J, Szarabajko A, Neilson L, Geldhof J (2021). Recess quality and social and behavioral health in elementary school students. Journal of School Health 91(9):730-740.",
     "doi": "10.1111/josh.13065",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "26 schools, 352 children: observed recess quality predicted fewer executive-function problems, more resilience and better adaptive classroom behavior",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Recess Quality and Social and Behavioral Health in Elementary School Students",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "Massey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 29,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_josh_13065.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Brez C, Sheets V (2017). Classroom benefits of recess. Learning Environments Research 20(3):433-445.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s10984-017-9237-x",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: small classroom experiment found no clear benefit of recess on subsequent attention and classroom behavior",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Classroom benefits of recess",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Learning Environments Research",
      "first_author": "Brez",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 29,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and SHAPE America (2017). Strategies for recess in schools. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/43773",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Federal and professional guidance: provide at least 20 minutes of daily recess, do not withhold recess as punishment, and write recess into policy",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Scheduled daily recess minutes for every elementary building (master schedule); count of recess-withholding incidents logged in the student information system as a disciplinary action or make-up-work consequence; share of K-5 students with at least 20 minutes of recess every day.",
   "standard": "Every elementary student receives at least 20 minutes of daily supervised recess, scheduled separately from physical education and lunch, which no staff member may withhold as a disciplinary consequence or to complete academic work.",
   "model_clause": "Every student in kindergarten through grade 5 shall receive at least twenty (20) minutes of supervised, unstructured recess each school day, held outdoors when weather permits, and scheduled in addition to physical education and separate from the seated lunch period. Recess shall not be withheld, shortened or assigned as a consequence for behavior, incomplete work, tardiness or missed assignments, and no staff member shall require a student to complete academic work during recess. A student may be removed from recess only for an immediate safety risk, and any such removal shall be recorded in the student information system the same day with the reason. Each building principal shall certify the building recess schedule to the Superintendent by September 15 of each year. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by November 1 of each year the daily recess minutes for each elementary building, the number of recorded recess removals by building and reason, and the correction plan for any building below twenty minutes.",
   "red_flags": [
    "recess may be withheld as a consequence",
    "loss of recess listed among disciplinary consequences",
    "recess may be used to complete missing work",
    "recess counted toward physical education minutes",
    "recess at teacher discretion or as time permits",
    "no minimum daily recess minutes stated"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "recess",
     "unstructured play",
     "free play",
     "playground",
     "loss of recess"
    ],
    "regex": "recess|unstructured (play|time)|free play|playground (time|break)"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal law. Florida Statutes 1003.455 requires 100 minutes per week of unstructured free-play recess for K-5 with at least 20 consecutive minutes daily (traditional public schools only). New Jersey (2018) requires a daily 20 minute recess for K-5. Washington RCW 28A.230.295 (2024-25) requires 30 minutes daily for K-5. Pennsylvania HB 1505 requires 30 minutes daily for K-5 from 2027-28. Several other states, including Arizona, Connecticut, Missouri, Rhode Island and Virginia, set daily recess or activity minimums or bar withholding recess as punishment; check the state code.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with each elementary building principal responsible for the building schedule and the student services director responsible for the incident log",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent issues an administrative regulation within 30 days defining recess as at least 20 minutes of supervised unstructured play scheduled apart from physical education and the seated lunch period, and stating that no staff member may withhold, shorten or assign recess as a consequence or require academic work during it.",
     "Each elementary principal revises the building master schedule within 60 days so every K-5 class has at least 20 minutes of daily recess and certifies the schedule to the Superintendent by September 15.",
     "The student information system administrator adds a recess removal record type with a required reason field and a same-day entry rule within 60 days, and removes recess from the list of available disciplinary consequences.",
     "Each principal briefs all teachers, paraprofessionals and recess supervisors on the policy at a staff meeting within 90 days and sends a one-page notice home to families."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent reviews certified schedules and recess removal records by building each quarter and requires a written correction plan from any building below 20 minutes or with a pattern of removals not tied to an immediate safety risk.",
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by November 1 the daily recess minutes for each elementary building, the number of recorded recess removals by building and reason, and any correction plans.",
     "The student services director audits a sample of discipline and make-up-work records from each building once during the year to confirm recess has not been withheld as a consequence."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "Each elementary principal recertifies the building recess schedule to the Superintendent by September 15 every year.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the November 1 recess report to the Board every year and flags any building below 20 minutes or any rise in recess removals."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of K-5 students scheduled for at least 20 minutes of daily recess per the certified master schedules, and the count of recess removals logged in the student information system by building and reason",
    "baseline": "The first September 15 schedule certifications and the first year of logged recess removals establish the baseline; many districts will have no prior count because recess withholding was not tracked",
    "target": "Within 1 year, 100 percent of K-5 students in every elementary building have at least 20 minutes of scheduled daily recess, and all logged recess removals cite an immediate safety risk, with the count of removals declining year over year in years 1 to 3",
    "benchmark": "The research supports at least one daily recess of 15 or more minutes for better classroom behavior; the policy standard is 20 minutes daily, matching Florida (20 consecutive minutes daily, 100 minutes per week) and New Jersey (20 minutes daily), while Washington and Pennsylvania (from 2027-28) set 30 minutes daily",
    "report": "Superintendent reports to the Board by November 1 each year with recess minutes by building, recess removals by building and reason, and correction plans for any building below 20 minutes"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "no-withholding-recess",
     "text": "The policy prohibits any staff member from withholding recess as a disciplinary consequence or to complete academic work.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "twenty-minutes-daily",
     "text": "The policy guarantees every elementary student at least 20 minutes of recess each day.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "supervised",
     "text": "The policy requires that recess be supervised.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "separate-from-pe-and-lunch",
     "text": "The policy schedules recess separately from physical education and lunch.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "school-nurses-and-health-services",
   "domain": "School nurses and health services",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "physical-health",
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "A full-time registered nurse in every school pays for itself: the Massachusetts cost-benefit study found $2.20 in avoided medical costs, teacher time and parent lost wages for every $1 spent. Schools that add a full-time nurse show lower illness absence, with the clearest gains for students with asthma (23 percent fewer days missed with a full-time versus part-time nurse in Toledo; fewer illness absences and emergency visits after San Jose added full-time nurses), but the attendance evidence is quasi-experimental, integrative reviews rate it weak, and no study shows a nurse effect on test scores.",
   "effect": "Benefit-cost ratio 2.2 (Massachusetts); students with asthma -23% days absent with full-time vs part-time nurse; illness absence fell in schools adding full-time RNs; teachers in schools without a full-time nurse spent about an hour a day on student health; achievement effects unproven.",
   "evidence_tier": "C",
   "counter_evidence": "No randomized or natural-experiment study of nurse staffing exists; the two best quasi-experiments (Telljohann 2004, Rodriguez 2013) are small and matched rather than randomized, and Yoder's 2019 review found nurse presence associated with less absence and missed class time but not with achievement. A matched 46-school study of licensed practical nurses (not RNs) found at best negligible attendance gains at $68,228 per school per year (Leach 2022), which suggests the benefit depends on scope of practice and on what the nurse is asked to do. The Massachusetts benefit-cost figure rests on modeled productivity savings, not measured outcomes. NASN itself abandoned the fixed 1:750 ratio in 2020 in favor of a workload and acuity analysis, so there is no single staffing number the research supports.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Wang LY, Vernon-Smiley M, Gapinski MA, Desisto M, Maughan E, Sheetz A (2014). Cost-benefit study of school nursing services. JAMA Pediatrics 168(7):642-648.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.5441",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.5441",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Full-time RN school health services in 933 Massachusetts schools returned $2.20 per $1 spent through avoided medical procedures, teacher time and parent lost wages",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Cost-Benefit Study of School Nursing Services",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "JAMA Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Wang",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 120,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamapediatrics_2013_5441.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Telljohann SK, Dake JA, Price JH (2004). Effect of full-time versus part-time school nurses on attendance of elementary students with asthma. Journal of School Nursing 20(6):331-334.",
     "doi": "10.1177/10598405040200060701",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/10598405040200060701",
     "year": 2004,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Low-income elementary students with asthma missed about 23 percent fewer days in schools with a full-time nurse than in schools with a part-time nurse",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effect of Full-Time versus Part-Time School Nurses on Attendance of Elementary Students with Asthma",
      "year": 2004,
      "journal": "The Journal of School Nursing",
      "first_author": "Telljohann",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 54,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_10598405040200060701.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rodriguez E, Rivera DA, Perlroth D, Becker E, Wang NE, Landau M (2013). School nurses' role in asthma management, school absenteeism, and cost savings: A demonstration project. Journal of School Health 83(12):842-850.",
     "doi": "10.1111/josh.12102",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12102",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Adding full-time nurses to 4 San Jose schools lowered illness absence relative to 5 matched schools and reduced parent-reported emergency visits for asthma",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Nurses' Role in Asthma Management, School Absenteeism, and Cost Savings: A Demonstration Project",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "Rodriguez",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 68,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_josh_12102.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Best NC, Oppewal S, Travers D (2018). Exploring school nurse interventions and health and education outcomes: An integrative review. Journal of School Nursing 34(1):14-27.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1059840517745359",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840517745359",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "School nurse interventions are most consistently linked to attendance and chronic-condition management outcomes; the education outcome literature is thin",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Exploring School Nurse Interventions and Health and Education Outcomes: An Integrative Review",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "The Journal of School Nursing",
      "first_author": "Best",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 115,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1059840517745359.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Yoder CM (2020). School nurses and student academic outcomes: An integrative review. Journal of School Nursing 36(1):49-60.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1059840518824397",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840518824397",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: nurse presence is associated with less absenteeism and missed class time but not with grades or test scores, and the research base is weak",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Nurses and Student Academic Outcomes: An Integrative Review",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "The Journal of School Nursing",
      "first_author": "Yoder",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 67,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1059840518824397.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Leach SM, Hollands FM, Stone E, et al. (2022). Costs and effects of school-based licensed practical nurses on elementary student attendance and chronic absenteeism. Prevention Science 23(8):1414-1427.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s11121-022-01459-0",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-022-01459-0",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: in 46 matched urban elementary schools a full-time LPN cost $68,228 per school and produced negligible or slightly negative attendance effects",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Costs and Effects of School-Based Licensed Practical Nurses on Elementary Student Attendance and Chronic Absenteeism",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Prevention Science",
      "first_author": "Leach",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 10,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1007_s11121_022_01459_0.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Harris K, Kneale D, Lasserson TJ, McDonald VM, Grigg J, Thomas J (2019). School-based self-management interventions for asthma in children and adolescents: A mixed methods systematic review. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1:CD011651.",
     "doi": "10.1002/14651858.CD011651.pub2",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011651.pub2",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "School-based asthma self-management programs reduce emergency visits (OR 0.70) and probably reduce hospital admissions; the effect on school absence is uncertain",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School-based self-management interventions for asthma in children and adolescents: a mixed methods systematic review",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews",
      "first_author": "Harris",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 160,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_14651858_CD011651_pub2.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hill NJ, Hollis M (2012). Teacher time spent on student health issues and school nurse presence. Journal of School Nursing 28(3):181-186.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1059840511429684",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840511429684",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Teachers in schools without a full-time nurse spent substantially more instructional time handling student health issues",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Teacher Time Spent on Student Health Issues and School Nurse Presence",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "The Journal of School Nursing",
      "first_author": "Hill",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 35,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1059840511429684.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Willgerodt MA, Tanner A, McCabe E, Jameson B, Brock D (2024). Public school nurses in the United States: National School Nurse Workforce Study 2.0. Journal of School Nursing 40(5):468-481.",
     "doi": "10.1177/10598405241253565",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/10598405241253565",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "About 78,900 FTE school nurses serve US public schools (65,052 RN, 13,817 LPN/LVN), unevenly distributed by region, locale and income, and fewer than half of nurses are supervised by an RN",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Public School Nurses in the United States: National School Nurse Workforce Study 2.0",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "The Journal of School Nursing",
      "first_author": "Willgerodt",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 65,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_10598405241253565.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "National Association of School Nurses (2025). Position statement: School nurse workload, essential staffing for safe and equitable student care. Journal of School Nursing 41(5):642-645.",
     "doi": "10.1177/10598405251360761",
     "url": "https://www.nasn.org/ps-workload",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Professional standard: every student needs daily access to a registered school nurse, staffing set by an annual workload and acuity analysis rather than a fixed ratio",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "National Association of School Nurses (NASN) Position Statement: School Nurse Workload—Essential Staffing for Safe and Equitable Student Care",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "The Journal of School Nursing",
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 0.93
     },
     "cited_by": 10,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Council on School Health, American Academy of Pediatrics (2016). Role of the school nurse in providing school health services. Pediatrics 137(6):e20160852.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2016-0852",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-0852",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "AAP policy recommends at least one full-time registered nurse in every school, with ratios adjusted for student acuity",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Role of the School Nurse in Providing School Health Services",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 225,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2016_0852.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of school buildings with a registered nurse on site every full school day, from the district's staffing roster; nurse-to-student ratio and acuity-adjusted workload by building; illness-related absence and chronic absence for students with asthma, diabetes, seizure disorders and food allergies, from the student information system; emergency 911 calls from schools.",
   "standard": "Every school building has a licensed registered nurse on site for the full instructional day, every day school is in session, with additional nursing staff assigned from an annual workload and acuity analysis; LPNs and unlicensed health aides work only under RN delegation and supervision.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall employ at least one full-time registered nurse assigned to each school building for the full instructional day on every day students are present. The Coordinator of Health Services, a registered nurse, shall complete a workload and acuity analysis for each building by June 30 of each year using the student health conditions, medication and treatment orders, individualized healthcare plans and enrollment in that building, and the Superintendent shall assign additional licensed nursing staff where the analysis shows a single nurse cannot provide safe care. Licensed practical nurses and health aides shall practice only under the delegation and supervision of a registered nurse. The Coordinator of Health Services shall report to the Board by October 15 of each year the nursing staff assigned to each building, the results of the workload analysis, the number of days each building lacked a registered nurse on site, and illness-related absence rates for students with chronic health conditions.",
   "red_flags": [
    "a school nurse may be shared among buildings as funds permit",
    "the health office may be staffed by clerical staff or a health aide in the absence of a nurse",
    "unlicensed personnel may administer medication without delegation by a registered nurse",
    "school nurse services shall be provided to the extent funding is available",
    "nurse services provided by contract on an as-needed basis only",
    "no requirement for a nurse on site during the school day"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "school nurse",
     "registered nurse",
     "health services",
     "health office",
     "medication administration",
     "individualized healthcare plan",
     "asthma",
     "epinephrine",
     "diabetes",
     "health aide",
     "LPN"
    ],
    "regex": "school nurse|registered nurse|health (services|office|aide)|medication administration|individualized health ?care plan|asthma|epinephrine|auto-?injector|glucagon|naloxone"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal mandate for school nurses. IDEA and Section 504 require health services needed for an eligible student to access education. State requirements vary widely: Pennsylvania's Public School Code (24 P.S. 14-1402) sets a maximum of 1,500 students per certified school nurse; many states require only access to nursing services. Since the 2014 CMS reversal of the free-care rule, districts may bill Medicaid for school health services to enrolled students, and most states have expanded school-based Medicaid billing since 2023.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Coordinator of Health Services (a registered nurse), reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Coordinator of Health Services audits the current staffing roster within 30 days and lists every building that lacks a full-time registered nurse on site for the full instructional day.",
     "The Coordinator of Health Services builds the workload and acuity analysis template using student health conditions, medication and treatment orders, individualized healthcare plans and enrollment for each building.",
     "The Superintendent directs Human Resources to post registered nurse positions for every building identified as uncovered and reports the hiring timeline to the Board within 60 days.",
     "The Coordinator of Health Services issues written delegation and supervision procedures so that every LPN and health aide is assigned to a named supervising registered nurse within 90 days.",
     "The business office confirms the district is enrolled to bill Medicaid for school health services to eligible students and assigns a staff member to file claims."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Coordinator of Health Services completes the first workload and acuity analysis for every building by June 30 and the Superintendent assigns additional licensed nursing staff where it shows a single nurse cannot provide safe care.",
     "The Superintendent and Human Resources fill every registered nurse vacancy so each building has a full-time RN on site every day students are present by the start of the next school year.",
     "The Coordinator of Health Services and the student information system administrator set up tracking of days each building lacked an RN, illness-related absence for students with asthma, diabetes, seizure disorders and food allergies, and 911 calls from schools.",
     "The Coordinator of Health Services delivers the first annual report to the Board by October 15 covering nursing staff by building, workload results, days without an RN, and illness-related absence for students with chronic conditions."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Coordinator of Health Services repeats the workload and acuity analysis by June 30 each year and the Superintendent adjusts nursing assignments before the next school year begins.",
     "The Coordinator of Health Services reports to the Board by October 15 each year and the Board reviews the report in open session.",
     "The business office reports Medicaid reimbursement for school health services to the Board annually so the Board can weigh it against nursing costs."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of school buildings with a registered nurse on site every full school day, and number of days any building lacked an RN, from the district staffing roster; illness-related absence rate for students with asthma, diabetes, seizure disorders and food allergies, from the student information system; count of emergency 911 calls from schools.",
    "baseline": "Roster audit and student information system data for the school year before adoption, recorded by the Coordinator of Health Services in the first 90 days.",
    "target": "100 percent of buildings have a full-time RN on site every day students are present, with zero uncovered days, within 1 year of adoption; illness-related absence for students with chronic health conditions declines from the baseline within 2 years and does not rise thereafter.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric target for coverage or absence. The Massachusetts study found a benefit-cost ratio of 2.2 and Toledo found 23 percent fewer days absent for students with asthma with a full-time versus part-time nurse, but these are quasi-experimental findings rated weak by integrative reviews and should not be adopted as a district target. Pennsylvania law sets a maximum of 1,500 students per certified school nurse, which the district may use as an outer ceiling for ratio, not a goal. No achievement effect is established, so test scores are not a measure.",
    "report": "Coordinator of Health Services reports to the Board by October 15 each year: nursing staff by building, workload and acuity results, days each building lacked an RN on site, illness-related and chronic absence for students with chronic health conditions, 911 calls from schools, and Medicaid reimbursement received."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "rn-every-building-full-day",
     "text": "The policy requires a licensed registered nurse on site in every school building for the full instructional day, every day school is in session.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "workload-acuity-analysis",
     "text": "The policy assigns additional nursing staff based on an annual workload and acuity analysis.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "lpn-aide-rn-delegation",
     "text": "The policy allows LPNs and unlicensed health aides to work only under registered nurse delegation and supervision.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-nurse-sharing-or-funding-contingency",
     "text": "The policy contains no language making nurse presence contingent on available funding, sharing a nurse among buildings, or as-needed contracting.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-unlicensed-substitute-staffing",
     "text": "The policy contains no language allowing clerical staff or health aides to staff the health office in a nurse's absence.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "school-based-mental-health",
   "domain": "School-based mental health, counseling and suicide prevention",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "mental-health",
    "discipline",
    "attendance",
    "achievement",
    "graduation",
    "postsecondary",
    "safety"
   ],
   "finding": "Mental health services delivered in school by school staff reduce student mental health problems (Hedges g = 0.39 across 43 controlled trials with 49,941 elementary students; g = 0.76 for targeted services), and placing licensed clinicians in schools raised treatment use 8 percent and cut self-reported suicide attempts about 15 percent across 263 Minnesota schools. Counselors have causal effects: an additional counselor reduces disciplinary incidents and raises achievement (Carrell and Hoekstra), individual counselors move graduation and college attendance as much as teachers do (Mulhern), and one more high school counselor raises four-year college enrollment by up to 10 points in a regression-discontinuity design. Universal suicide prevention programs that teach help-seeking (YAM in the SEYLE trial, SOS) roughly halve new suicide attempts, but the largest Sources of Strength trial found no overall reduction and harm where fidelity was poor.",
   "effect": "Services: g = 0.39 overall, 0.76 targeted; in-school clinicians: treatment use +8%, suicide attempts -15%; counselors: fewer disciplinary incidents and higher attainment, effects comparable to teacher effects; YAM: new suicide attempts and severe ideation about -50% at 12 months; Sources of Strength: no overall effect on attempts across 40 schools.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "The ASCA 250:1 ratio is a professional benchmark, not a research finding: the 2021 meta-analysis found only a small negative effect of higher ratios with serious design bias in the underlying studies, and ratio evidence does not say which staff or services matter. Universal programs can backfire: the MYRIAD trial (85 UK schools) found no benefit from school mindfulness training, a 1,071-student DBT-skills program (WISE Teens) worsened depression (d = -0.22) and anxiety (d = -0.28), and in the 40-school Sources of Strength trial poorly implemented schools saw more new suicide attempts among 9th graders than controls. The Minnesota suicide-attempt result is self-reported and the suspension result there is weaker. Counselor effects vary widely between individuals (Mulhern), so headcount alone does not guarantee results. Universal screening finds more students with depression but creates a referral load the district must be able to meet.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Sanchez AL, Cornacchio D, Poznanski B, Golik AM, Chou T, Comer JS (2018). The effectiveness of school-based mental health services for elementary-aged children: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 57(3):153-165.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jaac.2017.11.022",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.11.022",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "School-staff-delivered mental health services reduce mental health problems, g = 0.39 overall, 0.76 for targeted and 0.29 for universal, strongest when integrated into instruction and delivered several times a week",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effectiveness of School-Based Mental Health Services for Elementary-Aged Children: A Meta-Analysis",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry",
      "first_author": "Sanchez",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 298,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Golberstein E, Zainullina I, Sojourner A, Sander MA (2024). Effects of school-based mental health services on youth outcomes. Journal of Human Resources 59(S):S256-S281.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.1222-12703R2",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.1222-12703R2",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Staggered placement of licensed clinicians in 263 Hennepin County schools raised mental health service use 8 percent and reduced self-reported suicide attempts about 15 percent, at about $117 per pupil",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of School-Based Mental Health Services on Youth Outcomes",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Golberstein",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 20,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_1222_12703R2.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Carrell SE, Hoekstra M (2014). Are school counselors an effective education input? Economics Letters 125(1):66-69.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econlet.2014.07.020",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2014.07.020",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Using year-to-year variation in counselor staffing within elementary schools, one additional counselor reduced disciplinary problems and raised achievement, especially for boys",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Are school counselors an effective education input?",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Economics Letters",
      "first_author": "Carrell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 62,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Reback R (2010). Schools' mental health services and young children's emotions, behavior, and learning. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 29(4):698-725.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.20528",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20528",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "State subsidies for elementary counselors improved teacher-reported student behavior and learning climate, which supports counselor funding in early grades",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Schools' mental health services and young children's emotions, behavior, and learning",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Reback",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 102,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_20528.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Mulhern C (2023). Beyond teachers: Estimating individual school counselors' effects on educational attainment. American Economic Review 113(11):2846-2893.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aer.20200847",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200847",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Quasi-random assignment in Massachusetts shows counselors raise graduation, college attendance and persistence with effects as large as teacher effects, most for low-income and low-achieving students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Beyond Teachers: Estimating Individual School Counselors’ Effects on Educational Attainment",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "American Economic Review",
      "first_author": "Mulhern",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 35,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aer_20200847.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hurwitz M, Howell J (2014). Estimating causal impacts of school counselors with regression discontinuity designs. Journal of Counseling and Development 92(3):316-327.",
     "doi": "10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00159.x",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00159.x",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "One additional high school counselor raises four-year college enrollment by up to 10 percentage points",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Estimating Causal Impacts of School Counselors With Regression Discontinuity Designs",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of Counseling &amp; Development",
      "first_author": "Hurwitz",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 80,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_j_1556_6676_2014_00159_x.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kearney C, Akos P, Domina T, Young Z (2021). Student-to-school counselor ratios: A meta-analytic review of the evidence. Journal of Counseling and Development 99(4):418-428.",
     "doi": "10.1002/jcad.12394",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12394",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: higher ratios have a small negative association with student outcomes, the 250:1 benchmark has little direct research support, and the underlying studies carry serious design bias",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Student‐to‐School Counselor Ratios: A Meta‐Analytic Review of the Evidence",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of Counseling &amp; Development",
      "first_author": "Kearney",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 33,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_jcad_12394.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wasserman D, Hoven CW, Wasserman C, et al. (2015). School-based suicide prevention programmes: The SEYLE cluster-randomised, controlled trial. Lancet 385(9977):1536-1544.",
     "doi": "10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61213-7",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61213-7",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Youth Aware of Mental Health, a universal 5-hour program, roughly halved new suicide attempts and severe ideation at 12 months across 168 European schools; gatekeeper training and screening-with-referral did not",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School-based suicide prevention programmes: the SEYLE cluster-randomised, controlled trial",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "The Lancet",
      "first_author": "Wasserman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 782,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schilling EA, Aseltine RH, James A (2016). The SOS Suicide Prevention Program: Further evidence of efficacy and effectiveness. Prevention Science 17(2):157-166.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s11121-015-0594-3",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-015-0594-3",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Signs of Suicide reduced self-reported suicide attempts among 9th graders at 3-month follow-up and improved knowledge and attitudes",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The SOS Suicide Prevention Program: Further Evidence of Efficacy and Effectiveness",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Prevention Science",
      "first_author": "Schilling",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 212,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wyman PA, Brown CH, LoMurray M, et al. (2010). An outcome evaluation of the Sources of Strength suicide prevention program delivered by adolescent peer leaders in high schools. American Journal of Public Health 100(9):1653-1661.",
     "doi": "10.2105/AJPH.2009.190025",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.190025",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Peer-leader messaging in 18 high schools increased help-seeking acceptability and perceived adult support, more so in larger schools",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "An Outcome Evaluation of the Sources of Strength Suicide Prevention Program Delivered by Adolescent Peer Leaders in High Schools",
      "year": 2010,
      "journal": "American Journal of Public Health",
      "first_author": "Wyman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 537,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_2105_AJPH_2009_190025.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wyman PA, Cero I, Brown CH, et al. (2023). Impact of Sources of Strength on adolescent suicide deaths across three randomized trials. Injury Prevention 29(6):474-481.",
     "doi": "10.1136/ip-2023-044944",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1136/ip-2023-044944",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Pooling 78 schools across three trials, no suicide deaths occurred in intervention schools versus four in controls; significant in one test and not in the stricter paired test",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Impact of Sources of Strength on adolescent suicide deaths across three randomized trials",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Injury Prevention",
      "first_author": "Wyman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 14,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_ip_2023_044944.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wyman PA, Cero I, Pisani AR, et al. (2025). Impact of the Sources of Strength peer leader program on suicide attempt rates in 40 high schools: A hybrid effectiveness-implementation cluster randomized trial. School Mental Health.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s12310-025-09802-w",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-025-09802-w",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: across 40 schools and 17,280 students the program did not reduce suicide attempts overall; benefits appeared only with high adherence and vanished when adherence drifted in year two, with more attempts among 9th graders in low-adherence schools",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Impact of the Sources of Strength Peer Leader Program on Suicide Attempt Rates in 40 High Schools: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "School Mental Health",
      "first_author": "Wyman",
      "title_overlap": 0.93
     },
     "cited_by": 3,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1007_s12310_025_09802_w.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sekhar DL, Schaefer EW, Waxmonsky JG, et al. (2021). Screening in high schools to identify, evaluate, and lower depression among adolescents: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open 4(11):e2131836.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.31836",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.31836",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Universal PHQ-9 screening in 14 Pennsylvania high schools identified far more students with depression symptoms and increased treatment initiation compared with usual targeted referral",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Screening in High Schools to Identify, Evaluate, and Lower Depression Among Adolescents",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "JAMA Network Open",
      "first_author": "Sekhar",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 68,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamanetworkopen_2021_31836.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kuyken W, Ball S, Crane C, et al. (2022). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of universal school-based mindfulness training compared with normal school provision in reducing risk of mental health problems and promoting well-being in adolescence: The MYRIAD cluster randomised controlled trial. Evidence-Based Mental Health 25(3):99-109.",
     "doi": "10.1136/ebmental-2021-300396",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2021-300396",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: in 85 schools and 8,376 students, universal mindfulness training was no better than usual provision on depression risk, functioning or well-being at one year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of universal school-based mindfulness training compared with normal school provision in reducing risk of mental health problems and promoting well-being in adolescence: the MYRIAD cluster randomised controlled trial",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Evidence Based Mental Health",
      "first_author": "Kuyken",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 285,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_ebmental_2021_300396.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Harvey LJ, White FA, Hunt C, Abbott M (2023). Investigating the efficacy of a Dialectical behaviour therapy-based universal intervention on adolescent social and emotional well-being outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy 169:104408.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.brat.2023.104408",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2023.104408",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: a universal 8-session DBT skills program for 1,071 students worsened depression (d = -0.22) and anxiety (d = -0.28) immediately after the program",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Investigating the efficacy of a Dialectical behaviour therapy-based universal intervention on adolescent social and emotional well-being outcomes",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Behaviour Research and Therapy",
      "first_author": "Harvey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 50,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1016_j_brat_2023_104408.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Foulkes L, Stringaris A (2023). Do no harm: Can school mental health interventions cause iatrogenic harm? BJPsych Bulletin 47(6):349-351.",
     "doi": "10.1192/bjb.2023.9",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1192/bjb.2023.9",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: universal school mental health programs can produce null or harmful effects and should be evaluated, not assumed beneficial",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Do no harm: can school mental health interventions cause iatrogenic harm?",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "BJPsych Bulletin",
      "first_author": "Foulkes",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 106,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1192_bjb_2023_9.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "American School Counselor Association. School counselor roles and ratios (recommended ratio 250:1; national average 372:1 in 2024-25).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.schoolcounselor.org/About-School-Counseling/School-Counselor-Roles-Ratios",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Professional standard of 250 students per school counselor",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "National Association of School Psychologists. Shortage of school psychologists (recommended ratio 1 psychologist per 500 students).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.nasponline.org/research-and-policy/policy-priorities/critical-policy-issues/shortage-of-school-psychologists",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Professional standard of 500 students per school psychologist",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Students per school counselor, school psychologist and school social worker by building (district staffing roster against October 1 enrollment); number and share of students receiving school-based mental health services from a licensed clinician on site; share of students screened and share referred who begin services within 30 days; student survey items on depression, suicidal ideation and attempts (YRBS or state climate survey); suspension rate; suicide prevention program fidelity checks.",
   "standard": "Every school meets or has a funded plan to reach 250 students per counselor, 500 per school psychologist and 250 per school social worker; every school has a licensed mental health clinician on site at least weekly through district staff or a community partner; secondary students are screened annually for depression with parental consent and a same-week referral pathway; every secondary school runs an evidence-based suicide prevention program with annual fidelity monitoring and a written postvention protocol.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall staff each school at no more than 250 students per school counselor, 500 students per school psychologist and 250 students per school social worker, and for any school above a ratio shall present to the Board by March 1 of each year a funded plan to reach it within three years. Every school shall have a licensed mental health clinician, employed by the district or by a contracted community provider, on site at least one day each week, and a student referred for a mental health concern shall be offered an initial appointment within 10 school days. Each secondary school shall offer annual universal screening for depression and suicide risk using a validated instrument with parental consent; a student at elevated risk shall receive same-day follow-up by a licensed professional, and every student whose screening indicates a need for services shall be referred to school-based or community services within the same week. Each secondary school shall deliver an evidence-based suicide prevention program listed by a recognized registry and shall maintain a written postvention protocol, approved by the Director of Student Services, governing the school's response after a suicide death or attempt. The Director of Student Services shall document program adherence each semester, suspend any component not delivered as designed, and report to the Board by November 1 of each year the staffing ratios by building, the number and share of students served by an on-site licensed clinician, the share of students screened and the share referred who began services, time to first appointment, suspension rates, and the fidelity findings.",
   "red_flags": [
    "counselors may be assigned test coordination, scheduling, or administrative duties",
    "mental health services shall be provided to the extent that funds are available",
    "students shall be referred to outside providers (with no on-site provision)",
    "no suicide prevention policy or one limited to crisis response only",
    "universal screening prohibited without a referral pathway stated",
    "student-to-counselor ratios set above 400:1 or left unstated",
    "school psychologists limited to special education evaluations"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "school counselor",
     "guidance counselor",
     "school psychologist",
     "school social worker",
     "mental health",
     "suicide prevention",
     "threat assessment",
     "crisis",
     "self-harm",
     "depression screening",
     "student assistance program",
     "community mental health partner"
    ],
    "regex": "school (counselor|psychologist|social worker)|guidance counsel|mental health|suicid|self-?harm|depression screen|student assistance|crisis (team|response)|postvention"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal ratio mandate. The Bipartisan Safer Communities Act (2022) funded school-based mental health professional pipelines through the Department of Education, and 2023 CMS guidance expanded school Medicaid billing for mental health services. More than 20 states require annual suicide prevention training for school staff (Jason Flatt Act statutes), and several (including California AB 2246 and Texas) require every secondary school to adopt a suicide prevention policy. The Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment and most state laws require parental consent for universal mental health screening. ESSA Title IV-A funds may be used for school-based mental health services.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "model_clause_previous": "The Superintendent shall staff each school to reach no more than 250 students per school counselor, 500 students per school psychologist and 250 students per school social worker, and where a school is above these ratios shall present to the Board by March 1 of each year a funded plan to reach them within three years. Every school shall have a licensed mental health clinician, employed by the district or by a contracted community provider, available on site at least one day each week, and a student referred for a mental health concern shall be offered an initial appointment within 10 school days. Each secondary school shall offer annual universal screening for depression and suicide risk using a validated instrument with parental consent, with same-day follow-up by a licensed professional for any student at elevated risk. Each secondary school shall deliver an evidence-based suicide prevention program listed by a recognized registry, and the Director of Student Services shall document program adherence each semester and suspend any component that is not being delivered as designed. The Director of Student Services shall report to the Board by November 1 of each year the staffing ratios by building, the number of students served, screening and referral counts, time to first appointment, suspension rates, and the fidelity findings.",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Student Services, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Student Services pulls the October 1 enrollment and the staffing roster and computes students per counselor, school psychologist and school social worker for every building against the 250, 500 and 250 standards.",
     "The Director of Student Services surveys each building for whether a licensed mental health clinician is on site at least one day each week and lists the schools without one.",
     "The Superintendent opens talks with community mental health providers and the state Medicaid agency on contracted on-site clinicians and school Medicaid billing under the 2023 CMS guidance.",
     "Each secondary principal reports whether the school runs a registry-listed suicide prevention program and has a written postvention protocol, and the Director of Student Services approves or returns each protocol.",
     "The Director of Student Services selects a validated depression and suicide risk screening instrument and drafts a parental consent form that meets the Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment and state law."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "By March 1 the Superintendent presents to the Board a funded plan to bring every building above a ratio to the 250, 500 and 250 standards within three years, drawing on ESSA Title IV-A and Bipartisan Safer Communities Act pipeline funds where eligible.",
     "By the start of the second semester every school has a district or contracted licensed clinician on site at least one day each week, and each building logs time from referral to first appointment against the 10 school day standard.",
     "Each secondary school completes its first universal screening with parental consent, gives same-day follow-up by a licensed professional to students at elevated risk, and refers students who need services within the same week.",
     "Each secondary school delivers its registry-listed suicide prevention program, and the Director of Student Services completes the first semester adherence review and suspends any component not delivered as designed."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Student Services documents program adherence each semester and reports to the Board by November 1 the staffing ratios by building, students served by on-site clinicians, screening and referral shares, time to first appointment, suspension rates and fidelity findings.",
     "The Superintendent updates the funded staffing plan each year and presents it to the Board by March 1 for any building still above a ratio.",
     "The Director of Student Services reviews every postvention protocol annually and after any suicide death or attempt."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Students per school counselor, school psychologist and school social worker by building; share of students screened and share of referred students who begin services within 30 days; time to first appointment; number and share of students served by an on-site licensed clinician; student survey items on depression, suicidal ideation and attempts; suspension rate; suicide prevention fidelity checks.",
    "baseline": "First-year staffing roster against October 1 enrollment, the first screening cycle's screened and referred shares, the first semester's referral-to-appointment log, the most recent YRBS or state climate survey items on ideation and attempts, and the prior year's suspension rate.",
    "target": "Every building at or below 250 students per counselor, 500 per school psychologist and 250 per school social worker within three years of the first March 1 plan; every school with a licensed clinician on site weekly by the end of year one; every referred student offered an initial appointment within 10 school days; share of referred students beginning services within 30 days rising each year; self-reported suicide attempts and suspension rates declining over 1 to 3 years with every program component passing fidelity checks.",
    "benchmark": "The entry supplies the 250, 500 and 250 staffing ratios as the standard. For outcomes it reports in-school clinicians raising treatment use 8 percent and cutting self-reported suicide attempts about 15 percent in Minnesota, and YAM cutting new attempts about 50 percent at 12 months, but these come from research settings and are not district targets; Sources of Strength showed no overall effect and harm where fidelity was poor, so the fidelity check is a benchmark in its own right.",
    "report": "Director of Student Services to the Board by November 1 each year, with the funded staffing plan from the Superintendent by March 1 each year; the ratio, clinician access, screening and referral figures are broken out by building and the survey and suspension items are compared with the baseline year."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "staff-ratios",
     "text": "The policy requires every school to meet, or have a funded plan to reach, 250 students per counselor, 500 per school psychologist and 250 per school social worker.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "weekly-clinician",
     "text": "The policy requires every school to have a licensed mental health clinician on site at least weekly through district staff or a community partner.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-depression-screening",
     "text": "The policy requires secondary students to be screened annually for depression with parental consent.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "same-week-referral",
     "text": "The policy provides a same-week referral pathway for students identified through depression screening.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "suicide-prevention-program",
     "text": "The policy requires every secondary school to run an evidence-based suicide prevention program with annual fidelity monitoring.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "postvention-protocol",
     "text": "The policy requires every secondary school to have a written postvention protocol.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "lunch-minutes",
   "domain": "Seated lunch time",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "physical-health",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Children with fewer than 20 minutes seated to eat consume less of their lunch, especially fruit and vegetables: in a randomized crossover trial, 10 minutes of seated time versus 20 cut fruit consumption by 11 percentage points and vegetables by 14 points, and observational cafeteria studies in Massachusetts and California show the same pattern at scale. CDC guidance is at least 20 minutes seated after being served.",
   "effect": "10 vs 20 seated minutes: fruit consumption -11 percentage points, vegetables -14 points (RCT); under 20 minutes: entree, milk and vegetable consumption all lower (observational); longer lunch period raises odds of eating fruit 1.4x and vegetables 1.5x",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "The only randomized trial (Burg et al. 2021) enrolled 38 children at a university summer camp, not a school cafeteria, and found no difference in entree or beverage consumption between 10 and 20 minutes. The school-based studies are cross-sectional and cannot rule out that schools with longer lunches differ in other ways. No study links seated lunch minutes to achievement or attendance; the outcome evidence is dietary intake and plate waste. Longer lunches cost instructional minutes or require staggered periods and more cafeteria supervision.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Burg X, Metcalfe JJ, Ellison B, Prescott MP (2021). Effects of longer seated lunch time on food consumption and waste in elementary and middle school-age children: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open 4(6):e2114148.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.14148",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Randomized crossover: 10 vs 20 seated minutes reduced fruit consumption 11.3 points and vegetables 14.1 points; entree and beverage unchanged",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of Longer Seated Lunch Time on Food Consumption and Waste in Elementary and Middle School–age Children",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "JAMA Network Open",
      "first_author": "Burg",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 33,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamanetworkopen_2021_14148.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cohen JFW, Jahn JL, Richardson S, Cluggish SA, Parker E, Rimm EB (2016). Amount of time to eat lunch is associated with children's selection and consumption of school meal entree, fruits, vegetables, and milk. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 116(1):123-128.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jand.2015.07.019",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Massachusetts elementary and middle schools: students with under 20 minutes seated consumed less entree, milk and vegetables than those with 25 or more minutes",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Amount of Time to Eat Lunch Is Associated with Children’s Selection and Consumption of School Meal Entrée, Fruits, Vegetables, and Milk",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics",
      "first_author": "Cohen",
      "title_overlap": 0.93
     },
     "cited_by": 116,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gosliner W (2014). School-level factors associated with increased fruit and vegetable consumption among students in California middle and high schools. Journal of School Health 84(9):559-568.",
     "doi": "10.1111/josh.12188",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "5,439 California secondary students: longer lunch period raised odds of eating fruit (OR 1.40) and vegetables (OR 1.54) at school",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School‐Level Factors Associated With Increased Fruit and Vegetable Consumption Among Students in California Middle and High Schools",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "Gosliner",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 63,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_josh_12188.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Price J, Just DR (2015). Lunch, recess and nutrition: Responding to time incentives in the cafeteria. Preventive Medicine 71:27-30.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.11.016",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Scheduling recess before lunch raised fruit and vegetable consumption 54 percent (0.16 servings per child) relative to comparison schools",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Lunch, recess and nutrition: Responding to time incentives in the cafeteria",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Preventive Medicine",
      "first_author": "Price",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 50,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hunsberger M, McGinnis P, Smith J, Beamer BA, O'Malley J (2014). Elementary school children's recess schedule and dietary intake at lunch: a community-based participatory research partnership pilot study. BMC Public Health 14:156.",
     "doi": "10.1186/1471-2458-14-156",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Recess-before-lunch schedule associated with higher intake of fruit, vegetables and milk at lunch in a rural Oregon district",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Elementary school children’s recess schedule and dietary intake at lunch: a community-based participatory research partnership pilot study",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "BMC Public Health",
      "first_author": "Hunsberger",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 33,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1186_1471_2458_14_156.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). School health guidelines to promote healthy eating and physical activity. MMWR Recommendations and Reports 60(RR-5):1-76.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6005a1.htm",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Federal guideline: schools should provide at least 20 minutes for eating lunch after being seated and 10 minutes for breakfast",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Seated minutes per lunch period by building, measured from the time the last student in line is served to the end of the period (master schedule plus a cafeteria line-time observation each semester); share of buildings meeting 20 seated minutes; plate-waste or production-record data from food service.",
   "standard": "Every building schedule provides each student at least 20 minutes seated to eat lunch after being served, and the district measures and reports seated time, not period length.",
   "model_clause": "Each building schedule shall provide every student at least twenty (20) minutes of seated time to eat lunch after receiving the meal, and at least ten (10) minutes seated for breakfast served at school. Lunch periods shall be scheduled so that no student receives a meal fewer than twenty minutes before the period ends. Elementary buildings shall schedule recess before lunch where the facility permits. The Director of Food Services, with each building principal, shall observe serving-line times in every cafeteria at least once each semester and shall report seated lunch minutes by building and lunch period to the Superintendent. The Superintendent shall include seated lunch minutes by building, the number of buildings not meeting twenty minutes, and a dated correction plan for each in the annual wellness report presented to the Board no later than its first regular meeting in October.",
   "red_flags": [
    "lunch period of 20 minutes or less with no reference to seated time",
    "lunch period length defined only as bell-to-bell",
    "lunch may be shortened for testing, assemblies or discipline",
    "students may be held from lunch to complete work",
    "no building-level reporting of lunch time"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "lunch",
     "lunch period",
     "seated",
     "meal time",
     "time to eat",
     "cafeteria"
    ],
    "regex": "lunch (period|time|break)|time to eat|seated (time|lunch)|minutes? (for|to eat) lunch|meal ?time"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal minimum. USDA school meal rules set nutrition standards but not seated time. Connecticut General Statutes 10-221o requires a lunch period of at least 20 minutes for full-day students. Louisiana law requires no less than 20 minutes of seated lunch time. California has state guidance recommending 20 minutes seated but no statute. Most states leave lunch length to districts; CDC reports about half of districts neither require nor recommend 20 minutes.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Food Services, with each building principal; Superintendent reports to the Board",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Food Services, with each building principal, observes serving-line time in every cafeteria within 30 days and records minutes from the last student served to the end of each lunch period.",
     "The Superintendent compares each building's master schedule against the observed line times and lists every lunch period that gives any student fewer than 20 seated minutes within 60 days.",
     "Each principal of a building below 20 seated minutes submits a dated correction plan to the Superintendent within 90 days, covering schedule changes, added serving lines, or staggered release to the cafeteria.",
     "Elementary principals report to the Superintendent within 90 days whether their facility permits recess before lunch and the date by which it will be scheduled."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal implements the correction plan so that every lunch period in the building provides 20 seated minutes for lunch and 10 seated minutes for breakfast by the start of the next school year.",
     "The Director of Food Services repeats the serving-line observation in every cafeteria in the second semester and reports seated minutes by building and lunch period to the Superintendent.",
     "The Director of Food Services adds plate-waste or production-record data for fruit and vegetables to the report so the Board can see whether consumption moves with seated time.",
     "The Superintendent presents seated lunch minutes by building, the number of buildings below 20 minutes, and a dated correction plan for each in the annual wellness report at the first regular Board meeting in October."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Food Services and each principal observe serving-line times once each semester and report seated minutes by building and lunch period to the Superintendent.",
     "The Superintendent includes seated lunch minutes, the count of buildings below 20 minutes, and dated correction plans in every annual wellness report presented to the Board by its first regular October meeting."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Seated lunch minutes per lunch period by building, measured from the time the last student in line is served to the end of the period, from the master schedule plus a cafeteria line-time observation each semester; the share of buildings meeting 20 seated minutes; fruit and vegetable plate-waste or production-record data from food service.",
    "baseline": "First-semester serving-line observation in every cafeteria within 90 days of adoption, establishing seated minutes per lunch period, the number of buildings below 20 minutes, and current fruit and vegetable plate waste.",
    "target": "Every building and every lunch period provides at least 20 seated minutes for lunch and 10 for breakfast by the start of the next school year, with the count of buildings below 20 minutes at zero in each annual report thereafter and fruit and vegetable plate waste moving down from baseline over 1 to 3 years.",
    "benchmark": "CDC guidance of at least 20 minutes seated after being served; Connecticut General Statutes 10-221o (20-minute lunch period) and Louisiana law (no less than 20 minutes seated); CDC reports about half of districts neither require nor recommend 20 minutes. The entry gives no numeric benchmark for plate waste, so the plate-waste target is directional only.",
    "report": "Annual wellness report presented to the Board no later than its first regular meeting in October, showing seated lunch minutes by building and lunch period, the number of buildings not meeting 20 minutes, a dated correction plan for each, and fruit and vegetable plate-waste or production-record data."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "20-min-seated",
     "text": "The policy guarantees every student at least 20 minutes seated to eat lunch after being served.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "every-building-schedule",
     "text": "The policy applies the seated lunch time requirement to every building schedule in the district.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "measure-seated-time",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to measure seated eating time rather than lunch period length.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "report-seated-time",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to report seated eating time, not period length.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "school-meals",
   "domain": "Universal free school meals and breakfast after the bell",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "discipline",
    "attendance",
    "physical-health",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Making meals free for every student (the Community Eligibility Provision or a district-wide universal free lunch) raises school-meal participation and produces small but real gains in test scores and fewer suspensions: the New York City difference-in-differences study found math and ELA gains of 0.03 to 0.08 SD, state CEP rollouts found elementary math gains of about 0.02 to 0.06 SD, and CEP cut suspensions by roughly 17 percent for white elementary boys with negative but imprecise estimates elsewhere. Moving breakfast after the bell reliably raises breakfast participation (from about 43 to 74 percent of students in one 446-school district), but the best causal studies of breakfast-in-classroom find little or no test-score gain from the service change itself.",
   "effect": "Universal free lunch: math +0.03 to +0.06 SD, ELA +0.03 to +0.08 SD; participation +5 to +11 pct points; suspensions about -17% for one elementary subgroup; no BMI increase. Breakfast after the bell: participation roughly +30 pct points; test-score effect near zero in NYC and in a 446-school propensity study.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Breakfast-in-classroom raised participation in New York City with no detectable gain in achievement or attendance (Corcoran, Elbel and Schwartz 2016), and the 446-school Anzman-Frasca study found better participation and slightly better attendance but no achievement change; only Imberman and Kugler (2014) found test-score gains from in-class breakfast, and they could not separate nutrition from the timing of the test. The 2024 JAMA Network Open systematic review of CEP rated the attendance evidence low certainty (no or slight improvement in 2 studies) and the suspension and obesity evidence very low certainty. Gordon and Ruffini could not rule out large positive or negative discipline effects for middle and high schools, and the math gains in CEP studies are small (0.02 to 0.06 SD) and concentrated among elementary students and students newly gaining access. Districts with an identified student percentage near the 25 percent floor receive less than full federal reimbursement under CEP and must cover the gap from general funds.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Schwartz AE, Rothbart MW (2020). Let them eat lunch: The impact of universal free meals on student performance. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 39(2):376-410.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22175",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22175",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Universal free lunch in NYC middle schools raised math and ELA scores 0.03 to 0.08 SD and lunch participation 5 to 11 points, with no rise in obesity",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Let Them Eat Lunch: The Impact of Universal Free Meals on Student Performance",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Schwartz",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 171,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22175.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ruffini K (2022). Universal access to free school meals and student achievement: Evidence from the Community Eligibility Provision. Journal of Human Resources 57(3):776-820.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.57.3.0518-9509R3",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.57.3.0518-9509R3",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Staggered CEP adoption across states raised math scores modestly, concentrated in districts where many students newly gained free meals",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Universal Access to Free School Meals and Student Achievement",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Ruffini",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 56,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_57_3_0518_9509R3.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gordon NE, Ruffini K (2021). Schoolwide free meals and student discipline: Effects of the Community Eligibility Provision. Education Finance and Policy 16(3):418-442.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00307",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp_a_00307",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "CEP eligibility reduced suspensions about 17 percent for white male elementary students, with negative but smaller and imprecise estimates for other groups",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Schoolwide Free Meals and Student Discipline: Effects of the Community Eligibility Provision",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Gordon",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 40,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00307.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gordanier J, Ozturk O, Williams B, Zhan C (2020). Free lunch for all! The effect of the Community Eligibility Provision on academic outcomes. Economics of Education Review 77:101999.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.101999",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.101999",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "South Carolina CEP raised elementary math scores about 0.06 SD, with smaller reading and middle-school effects and the largest gains for students who newly gained free meals",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Free Lunch for All! The Effect of the Community Eligibility Provision on Academic Outcomes",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Gordanier",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 84,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Spill MK, Trivedi R, Thoerig RC, et al. (2024). Universal free school meals and school and student outcomes: A systematic review. JAMA Network Open 7(8):e2424082.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.24082",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.24082",
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Across 6 studies covering 11,000+ schools, CEP raised lunch participation (moderate certainty); attendance, suspension and obesity findings were favorable but low or very low certainty",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Universal Free School Meals and School and Student Outcomes",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "JAMA Network Open",
      "first_author": "Spill",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 53,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamanetworkopen_2024_24082.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cohen JFW, Hecht AA, McLoughlin GM, Turner L, Schwartz MB (2021). Universal school meals and associations with student participation, attendance, academic performance, diet quality, food security, and body mass index: A systematic review. Nutrients 13(3):911.",
     "doi": "10.3390/nu13030911",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030911",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Universal free meals consistently raise participation and diet quality; academic and attendance findings are positive or null, never negative",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Universal School Meals and Associations with Student Participation, Attendance, Academic Performance, Diet Quality, Food Security, and Body Mass Index: A Systematic Review",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Nutrients",
      "first_author": "Cohen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 381,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3390_nu13030911.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Frisvold DE (2015). Nutrition and cognitive achievement: An evaluation of the School Breakfast Program. Journal of Public Economics 124:91-104.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.12.003",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.12.003",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "State mandates that schools offer breakfast raised math and reading achievement, which supports offering breakfast to every student",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Nutrition and cognitive achievement: An evaluation of the School Breakfast Program",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Public Economics",
      "first_author": "Frisvold",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 186,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Imberman SA, Kugler AD (2014). The effect of providing breakfast in class on student performance. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 33(3):669-699.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.21759",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21759",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "In-class breakfast in a large urban district raised participation and short-run math and reading scores; the authors could not separate nutrition from test-day timing",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Providing Breakfast in Class on Student Performance",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Imberman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 89,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_21759.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Corcoran SP, Elbel B, Schwartz AE (2016). The effect of Breakfast in the Classroom on obesity and academic performance: Evidence from New York City. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 35(3):509-532.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.21909",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21909",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: breakfast in the classroom raised participation but produced no gain in achievement or attendance and no rise in obesity",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Breakfast in the Classroom on Obesity and Academic Performance: Evidence from New York City",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Corcoran",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 68,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_21909.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Anzman-Frasca S, Djang HC, Halmo MM, Dolan PR, Economos CD (2015). Estimating impacts of a Breakfast in the Classroom program on school outcomes. JAMA Pediatrics 169(1):71-77.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.2042",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.2042",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Breakfast in the classroom in 446 urban elementary schools raised participation from 43 to 74 percent and slightly raised attendance, with no change in achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Estimating Impacts of a Breakfast in the Classroom Program on School Outcomes",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "JAMA Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Anzman-Frasca",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 78,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamapediatrics_2014_2042.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bartfeld JS, Berger L, Men F, Chen Y (2019). Access to the School Breakfast Program is associated with higher attendance and test scores among elementary school students. Journal of Nutrition 149(2):336-343.",
     "doi": "10.1093/jn/nxy267",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxy267",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Wisconsin elementary students with school breakfast access had higher attendance and test scores, with the largest associations for low-income students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Access to the School Breakfast Program Is Associated with Higher Attendance and Test Scores among Elementary School Students",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "The Journal of Nutrition",
      "first_author": "Bartfeld",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 53,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Leos-Urbel J, Schwartz AE, Weinstein M, Corcoran SP (2013). Not just for poor kids: The impact of universal free school breakfast on meal participation and student outcomes. Economics of Education Review 36:88-107.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2013.06.007",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2013.06.007",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Universal free breakfast in NYC raised participation for poor and non-poor students alike; effects on attendance and test scores were small and imprecise",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Not just for poor kids: The impact of universal free school breakfast on meal participation and student outcomes",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Leos-Urbel",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 137,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Average daily participation in breakfast and lunch as a share of enrollment, by school, from the district's monthly USDA reimbursement claims; share of eligible schools operating under CEP; chronic absence and out-of-school suspension rates from the state report card, compared across years of adoption.",
   "standard": "Every school with an identified student percentage at or above the federal CEP threshold operates under CEP or a state universal-meals program so that no student is charged for breakfast or lunch, and every school serves breakfast after the start of the instructional day (in-classroom, grab-and-go, or second-chance) so that breakfast participation reaches at least 70 percent of lunch participation.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall enroll every eligible school in the Community Eligibility Provision or an equivalent universal free meals program at each federal election window, and no student shall be charged for a reimbursable breakfast or lunch in a participating school. Every school shall serve breakfast after the start of the instructional day through breakfast in the classroom, grab-and-go, or second-chance breakfast. No student shall be denied a reimbursable meal, served an alternate meal, or identified to peers because of an unpaid meal balance. The Director of Nutrition Services shall report to the Board by October 15 of each year the CEP status of each school, the average daily participation in breakfast and lunch by school for the prior year, and the schools where breakfast participation is below 70 percent of lunch participation together with a corrective plan.",
   "red_flags": [
    "students with unpaid meal balances shall be served an alternate meal",
    "breakfast shall be served before the start of the school day only",
    "the district may participate in the Community Eligibility Provision at the discretion of the Superintendent",
    "students may be denied a meal until the balance is paid",
    "meal debt may be referred to a collection agency",
    "no language on breakfast service or CEP at all in a district with high-poverty schools"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "community eligibility",
     "CEP",
     "universal free meals",
     "free breakfast",
     "breakfast in the classroom",
     "breakfast after the bell",
     "grab and go",
     "meal charge",
     "unpaid meal",
     "school lunch",
     "nutrition services",
     "food service"
    ],
    "regex": "community eligibility|universal (free )?(school )?meals|breakfast (in the classroom|after the bell)|grab[- ]and[- ]go|meal (charge|debt|balance)|unpaid (meal|lunch)|alternate meal|free (and|or) reduced"
   },
   "law_notes": "CEP is federal (Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010, 42 U.S.C. 1759(a)); USDA lowered the identified student percentage threshold from 40 to 25 percent in 2023 (7 CFR 245.9). Several states fund universal free meals statewide (including California, Maine, Colorado, Minnesota, New Mexico, Vermont, Michigan and Massachusetts). Several states require breakfast after the bell in high-poverty schools (including Texas, Nevada, Colorado, New Mexico, West Virginia and Illinois). USDA requires districts to have a written unpaid meal charge policy (SP 46-2016).",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Nutrition Services, reporting to the Superintendent",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Nutrition Services pulls the identified student percentage for every school from the state direct certification match and lists each school at or above the 25 percent CEP threshold under 7 CFR 245.9.",
     "The Superintendent files CEP elections for every eligible school, or enrolls them in the state universal-meals program where one exists, at the next federal election window.",
     "The Director of Nutrition Services inventories each school's current breakfast model and start time and computes breakfast participation as a share of lunch participation from the last 12 months of USDA reimbursement claims.",
     "The Superintendent adopts and posts the written unpaid meal charge policy required by USDA SP 46-2016 that bars alternate meals, meal denial, and identification of students over balances.",
     "The Director of Nutrition Services selects a breakfast after the bell model (in-classroom, grab-and-go, or second-chance) with each principal for every school now serving breakfast only before the instructional day."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Principals launch breakfast after the bell in every school by the start of the second semester, with the Director of Nutrition Services training cafeteria staff and teachers on serving and counting procedures.",
     "The Director of Nutrition Services builds a monthly dashboard of breakfast and lunch average daily participation by school from the reimbursement claims and shares it with principals within 30 days of each claim.",
     "The Director of Nutrition Services delivers the first annual report to the Board by October 15 listing CEP status by school, prior-year participation by school, and a corrective plan for every school where breakfast participation is below 70 percent of lunch participation.",
     "The Superintendent confirms that no school is charging students for reimbursable meals and that no alternate-meal or debt-identification practices remain, through a principal attestation collected within 180 days."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent re-elects CEP for every eligible school at each federal election window and adds newly eligible schools as direct certification data changes.",
     "The Director of Nutrition Services reports to the Board by October 15 each year on CEP status, participation by school, and corrective plans for schools below the 70 percent breakfast-to-lunch ratio.",
     "The Superintendent reviews chronic absence and out-of-school suspension rates from the state report card alongside participation data each year to track outcomes across years of adoption."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Average daily breakfast and lunch participation as a share of enrollment by school, breakfast participation as a share of lunch participation by school, and share of eligible schools operating under CEP, all from monthly USDA reimbursement claims; chronic absence and out-of-school suspension rates from the state report card.",
    "baseline": "Prior-year average daily participation in breakfast and lunch by school from the last 12 months of reimbursement claims, the current breakfast-to-lunch participation ratio by school, the count of eligible schools under CEP, and the most recent state report card chronic absence and suspension rates, all recorded before the first CEP election and before any breakfast model change.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, 100 percent of schools at or above the 25 percent identified student percentage threshold operate under CEP or a state universal-meals program, and every school serves breakfast after the bell; within 2 years, every school's breakfast participation reaches at least 70 percent of its lunch participation, and district lunch participation rises by at least 5 percentage points over baseline, with suspension and chronic absence rates trending down across years of adoption.",
    "benchmark": "Universal free lunch raised participation 5 to 11 percentage points and produced math gains of 0.03 to 0.06 SD and ELA gains of 0.03 to 0.08 SD in NYC and state CEP rollouts; breakfast after the bell raised breakfast participation from about 43 to 74 percent of students in a 446-school district (roughly 30 points); the standard's 70 percent breakfast-to-lunch ratio is the operating threshold. The entry gives no numeric benchmark for suspension or absence change beyond one subgroup (about 17 percent fewer suspensions), so those are tracked directionally.",
    "report": "Annual report by the Director of Nutrition Services to the Board by October 15, with CEP status by school, prior-year breakfast and lunch participation by school, the list of schools below the 70 percent breakfast-to-lunch ratio with corrective plans, and state report card chronic absence and suspension rates compared across years of adoption."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "universal-free-meals",
     "text": "The policy requires every school at or above the federal CEP identified student percentage threshold to operate under CEP or a state universal-meals program.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "no-student-charged",
     "text": "The policy states that no student is charged for breakfast or lunch at schools operating under CEP or a state universal-meals program.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "breakfast-after-bell",
     "text": "The policy requires every school to serve breakfast after the start of the instructional day, in-classroom, grab-and-go, or second-chance.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "breakfast-participation-target",
     "text": "The policy sets a target that breakfast participation reaches at least 70 percent of lunch participation.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-meal-denial-or-shaming",
     "text": "The policy contains no language allowing alternate meals, meal denial, or collection referrals for students with unpaid meal balances.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "vision-screening-and-glasses",
   "domain": "Vision screening and eyeglasses",
   "category": "health-and-wellbeing",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps",
    "physical-health"
   ],
   "finding": "Screening every student and then delivering eye exams and free glasses on site improves reading: the Baltimore cluster randomized trial of 2,304 students in grades 3 to 7 found a 0.09 SD reading gain after one year, with gains of 0.28 SD for students in the lowest baseline quartile and 0.25 SD for students in special education; rural China trials found math gains of 0.11 to 0.16 SD from free glasses. The gains fade by the second year unless glasses are replaced and wear is followed up, and screening alone, without exams and glasses, does nothing for achievement.",
   "effect": "Reading +0.09 SD at 1 year overall, +0.28 SD for lowest-quartile readers (Baltimore RCT); math +0.11 to +0.16 SD (China cluster RCTs); FCAT pass rate +2 pct points averaged over all students (Florida RCT); no sustained effect at 2 years without follow-up.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Effects fade: Baltimore found no sustained impact at two years and no effect on the state PARCC test, and the Florida trial also reports fade-out. Screening without a guaranteed exam and glasses did not raise achievement in Florida, and the 2018 Cochrane review found only low-certainty evidence that school screening programs by themselves improve outcomes. Compliance is the binding constraint: many students stop wearing or lose their glasses within months, and the Baltimore and Los Angeles programs needed replacement pairs and classroom follow-up. Math effects in the US trials were small (0.03 SD in Baltimore elementary grades) and the Los Angeles study was observational.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Neitzel AJ, Wolf B, Guo X, et al. (2021). Effect of a randomized interventional school-based vision program on academic performance of students in grades 3 to 7: A cluster randomized clinical trial. JAMA Ophthalmology 139(10):1104-1114.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2021.3544",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2021.3544",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Vision for Baltimore: eye exams and free glasses raised reading 0.09 SD at one year, 0.28 SD for the lowest-quartile readers and 0.25 SD for special education students, with no sustained effect at two years",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effect of a Randomized Interventional School-Based Vision Program on Academic Performance of Students in Grades 3 to 7",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "JAMA Ophthalmology",
      "first_author": "Neitzel",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 60,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamaophthalmol_2021_3544.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Glewwe P, Park A, Zhao M (2016). A better vision for development: Eyeglasses and academic performance in rural primary schools in China. Journal of Development Economics 122:170-182.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.007",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.007",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Free glasses for rural Chinese primary students raised test scores by 0.11 to 0.16 SD, equal to roughly a third to half a year of schooling",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A better vision for development: Eyeglasses and academic performance in rural primary schools in China",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Development Economics",
      "first_author": "Glewwe",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 144,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ma X, Zhou Z, Yi H, et al. (2014). Effect of providing free glasses on children's educational outcomes in China: Cluster randomized controlled trial. BMJ 349:g5740.",
     "doi": "10.1136/bmj.g5740",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g5740",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "In 252 schools, free glasses improved math scores by about 0.11 SD versus prescription-only control; a voucher redeemable in town performed as well as in-school delivery",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effect of providing free glasses on children's educational outcomes in China: cluster randomized controlled trial",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "BMJ",
      "first_author": "Ma",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 237,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_bmj_g5740.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Glewwe P, West KL, Lee J (2018). The impact of providing vision screening and free eyeglasses on academic outcomes: Evidence from a randomized trial in Title I elementary schools in Florida. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 37(2):265-300.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22043",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22043",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Screening plus free exams and glasses raised FCAT reading and math pass rates about 2 points averaged over all students; enhanced screening alone did not, and effects faded over time",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Providing Vision Screening and Free Eyeglasses on Academic Outcomes: Evidence from a Randomized Trial in Title I Elementary Schools in Florida",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Glewwe",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 165,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22043.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Slavin RE, Collins ME, Repka MX, et al. (2018). In plain sight: Reading outcomes of providing eyeglasses to disadvantaged children. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 23(3):250-258.",
     "doi": "10.1080/10824669.2018.1477602",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2018.1477602",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Baltimore pilot: students who received glasses through the school program gained in reading relative to matched peers, which motivated the later trial",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "In Plain Sight: Reading Outcomes of Providing Eyeglasses to Disadvantaged Children",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR)",
      "first_author": "Slavin",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 28,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_10824669_2018_1477602.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dudovitz RN, Sim MS, Elashoff D, et al. (2020). Receipt of corrective lenses and academic performance of low-income students. Academic Pediatrics 20(4):527-533.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.acap.2020.01.001",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2020.01.001",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Los Angeles students who received glasses rose 4.5 percentile points in language arts by year two, and bottom-tercile students gained 10 to 24 percentile points in math",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Receipt of Corrective Lenses and Academic Performance of Low-Income Students",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Academic Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Dudovitz",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 23,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Evans JR, Morjaria P, Powell C (2018). Vision screening for correctable visual acuity deficits in school-age children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2:CD005023.",
     "doi": "10.1002/14651858.CD005023.pub3",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005023.pub3",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence and design guidance: evidence that screening alone improves outcomes is low certainty; providing free glasses at screening improves wear compared with a prescription alone",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Vision screening for correctable visual acuity deficits in school-age children and adolescents",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews",
      "first_author": "Evans",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 84,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_14651858_CD005023_pub3.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of students screened each year by grade; share of students who fail screening who receive a comprehensive eye exam within 60 days and glasses within 90 days (from the school nurse's referral log); share still wearing glasses at a 3-month classroom check; reading growth of students who received glasses, from the district's benchmark assessment.",
   "standard": "Every student is screened for distance and near vision at school entry and at least every two years thereafter (and whenever a teacher refers), every student who fails is guaranteed a comprehensive eye exam and glasses at no cost to the family, delivered on site or through a partner within 90 days, with a replacement pair and a documented wear check each semester.",
   "model_clause": "The district shall screen the distance and near vision of every student at school entry, in kindergarten and in grades 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, in any year in which a student has not been screened within the previous two years, upon new enrollment, and whenever a teacher refers a student, using an evidence-based screening protocol administered by the school nurse or trained staff. For every student who fails screening, the school nurse shall record the referral in a referral log and shall arrange a comprehensive eye examination and, when prescribed, eyeglasses, delivered on site or through a school-based vision partner within 90 calendar days of referral, at no cost to the family; the district may bill the student's insurance where available and shall cover any remaining cost. The nurse shall provide one replacement pair per year on request. Each semester, classroom teachers shall conduct a wear check confirming that each student with prescribed glasses has them and is wearing them, shall document the result in the referral log, and the nurse shall follow up with the family of any student who does not. The Coordinator of Health Services shall report to the Board by December 15 of each year, by school and by grade, the number and share of students screened, the number referred, the share of referred students examined within 60 days and fitted with glasses within 90 days, the share wearing glasses at the semester check, and the reading growth of students who received glasses as measured by the district's benchmark assessment.",
   "red_flags": [
    "vision screening may be conducted as resources allow",
    "parents shall be notified of screening failures (with no provision for exams or glasses)",
    "screening is limited to distance acuity only",
    "the district assumes no responsibility for follow-up care",
    "screening frequency longer than every two years",
    "no named role responsible for referral follow-up"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "vision screening",
     "eye exam",
     "eyeglasses",
     "glasses",
     "visual acuity",
     "optometrist",
     "hearing and vision",
     "health screening"
    ],
    "regex": "vision screen|eye (exam|examination)|eyeglass|visual acuity|optometr|ophthalmolog|hearing and vision|health screening"
   },
   "law_notes": "Most states require school vision screening at specified grades, with varying frequency and methods; Illinois requires a comprehensive eye examination by an optometrist or ophthalmologist for kindergarten entry (105 ILCS 5/27-8.1). Medicaid EPSDT covers eye exams and glasses for enrolled children, so a district program can bill or refer for most low-income students. The USPSTF recommends screening children ages 3 to 5 for amblyopia and finds insufficient evidence for or against screening older children, which is about health screening, not the achievement effect of correction.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "model_clause_previous": "The district shall screen the vision of every student in kindergarten and in grades 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, every newly enrolled student, and any student referred by a teacher, using an evidence-based screening protocol administered by the school nurse or trained staff. For every student who fails screening, the school nurse shall arrange a comprehensive eye examination and, when prescribed, eyeglasses at no cost to the family within 90 calendar days, through a school-based vision partner or the student's insurance, and shall provide one replacement pair per year on request. Classroom teachers shall confirm each semester that students with prescribed glasses have them, and the nurse shall follow up with the family when they do not. The Coordinator of Health Services shall report to the Board by December 15 of each year the number screened, the number referred, the share of referred students examined and fitted within 90 days, and the share wearing glasses at the semester check, by school.",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Coordinator of Health Services",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Coordinator of Health Services adopts an evidence-based screening protocol for distance and near vision and sets the screening calendar for kindergarten and grades 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 within 30 days.",
     "The Coordinator of Health Services trains every school nurse and designated screening staff on the protocol and on the referral log, including the 60-day exam and 90-day glasses fields, within 60 days.",
     "The Superintendent signs an agreement with a school-based vision partner (optometrist or ophthalmologist) to deliver comprehensive exams and glasses on site or by referral, and the business office sets up Medicaid EPSDT and private insurance billing, within 90 days.",
     "Each school nurse opens the referral log and begins screening newly enrolled and teacher-referred students immediately, recording every failed screening on the day it occurs."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each school nurse completes screening of every student in the designated grades and every student not screened within the previous two years, and arranges an exam and glasses for every student who fails within 90 calendar days of referral.",
     "Classroom teachers conduct the semester wear check for every student with prescribed glasses, document it in the referral log, and the nurse contacts the family of any student without glasses and issues a replacement pair on request.",
     "The Coordinator of Health Services matches students who received glasses to the district's benchmark assessment and delivers the first report to the Board by December 15, by school and by grade."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Coordinator of Health Services reports to the Board each December 15 the screening, referral, 60-day exam, 90-day glasses, wear-check and reading-growth figures by school and grade.",
     "Each school nurse re-screens every student at least every two years and continues the semester wear check and replacement-pair process, since the research shows gains fade by year two without follow-up."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "From the school nurse's referral log and the district benchmark assessment: share of students screened each year by grade; share of referred students examined within 60 days and fitted with glasses within 90 days; share still wearing glasses at the semester classroom check; reading growth of students who received glasses versus their prior-year growth.",
    "baseline": "First year of the referral log: the share of students screened by grade, the share of referrals that reached an exam and glasses within 60 and 90 days, the share wearing glasses at the first semester check, and the prior-year reading growth of the students later fitted with glasses.",
    "target": "By the end of year one, every student in the designated grades is screened, every student who fails screening is examined within 60 days and fitted with glasses within 90 days, and the share wearing glasses at each semester check rises from the first check onward; by the end of year two, reading growth of students who received glasses exceeds their own prior-year growth, with the largest gains among students in the lowest baseline reading quartile and students in special education.",
    "benchmark": "Baltimore cluster RCT (2,304 students, grades 3 to 7): reading +0.09 SD at one year overall, +0.28 SD for the lowest baseline quartile, +0.25 SD for students in special education; China cluster RCTs: math +0.11 to +0.16 SD; Florida RCT: FCAT pass rate +2 percentage points. No sustained effect at two years without replacement glasses and wear follow-up, so the wear-check and replacement figures are the leading indicators.",
    "report": "Coordinator of Health Services to the Board by December 15 each year, by school and by grade, with the semester wear-check results and the 60-day and 90-day delivery shares shown separately so the Board can see whether the follow-up that sustains the effect is happening."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "free-exam-and-glasses",
     "text": "The policy guarantees every student who fails screening a comprehensive eye exam and glasses at no cost to the family.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "screening-every-two-years",
     "text": "The policy screens every student for distance and near vision at school entry and at least every two years thereafter.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "teacher-referral-screening",
     "text": "The policy provides that a student is screened whenever a teacher refers the student.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "ninety-day-delivery",
     "text": "The policy requires the exam and glasses to be delivered on site or through a partner within 90 days.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "replacement-pair-each-semester",
     "text": "The policy provides a replacement pair of glasses each semester.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "semester-wear-check",
     "text": "The policy requires a documented wear check each semester.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "threat-assessment",
   "domain": "Behavioral threat assessment",
   "category": "safety",
   "outcomes": [
    "safety",
    "discipline",
    "equity-gaps",
    "climate",
    "mental-health"
   ],
   "finding": "Schools that use the Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines (CSTAG, formerly the Virginia guidelines) resolve student threats with far less exclusion: in a randomized trial, threatened students in CSTAG schools were about one third as likely to receive a long-term suspension (OR 0.35) and four times as likely to receive counseling, and statewide Virginia comparisons show lower odds of suspension (OR 0.59) and law-enforcement action (OR 0.47) than under generic threat procedures, with almost no threats carried out and no racial disparity in outcomes among assessed students.",
   "effect": "Long-term suspension OR 0.35 and alternative placement OR 0.13 (RCT); suspension OR 0.59, police action OR 0.47 versus generic approaches (statewide); about 1 in 100 threats attempted; no Black-White gap in suspension among assessed students.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Nearly all outcome research comes from the model's developer (Cornell and colleagues at the University of Virginia), who has a financial interest in CSTAG training. The single RCT is small (201 students in 40 schools) and measures disciplinary responses, not whether violence was prevented; no study can show that threat assessment reduces attacks because attacks are rare. In Florida's statewide data, Black students are over-referred for threat assessment relative to enrollment even though outcomes after referral show smaller disparities than general discipline, so parity after referral does not mean parity in who gets referred. Students receiving special education were about a third of Virginia cases, well above their enrollment share. Teams that are poorly trained reclassify transient threats as substantive and the exclusion benefit disappears; fidelity predicted lower suspension in the RCT.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Cornell DG, Allen K, Fan X (2012). A randomized controlled study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in kindergarten through grade 12. School Psychology Review 41(1):100-115.",
     "doi": "10.1080/02796015.2012.12087378",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "40 schools randomized: assessed students more likely to receive counseling (OR 3.98) and parent conference (OR 2.57), less likely to receive long-term suspension (OR 0.35) or alternative placement (OR 0.13)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Randomized Controlled Study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in Kindergarten Through Grade 12",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Cornell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 101,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_02796015_2012_12087378.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Maeng JL, Cornell DG, Huang FL (2020). Student threat assessment as an alternative to exclusionary discipline. Journal of School Violence 19(3):377-388.",
     "doi": "10.1080/15388220.2019.1707682",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "657 students in 260 CSTAG schools versus 661 in 267 generic-approach schools: suspension OR 0.59, law-enforcement action OR 0.47, expulsion 0% versus 1.7%",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Student Threat Assessment as an Alternative to Exclusionary Discipline",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of School Violence",
      "first_author": "Maeng",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 33,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_15388220_2019_1707682.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cornell D, Maeng JL, Burnette AG, Jia Y, Huang F, Konold T, Datta P, Malone M, Meyer P (2018). Student threat assessment as a standard school safety practice: results from a statewide implementation study. School Psychology Quarterly 33(2):213-222.",
     "doi": "10.1037/spq0000220",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "1,865 cases in 785 Virginia schools after the 2013 mandate: teams distinguished serious threats by weapon possession and target, not by race or gender; serious threats 12 times more likely to be attempted",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Student threat assessment as a standard school safety practice:\n\t\t\t\t\t\tResults from a statewide implementation study.",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "School Psychology Quarterly",
      "first_author": "Cornell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 50,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_spq0000220.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cornell D, Maeng J, Huang F, Shukla K, Konold T (2018). Racial/ethnic parity in disciplinary consequences using student threat assessment. School Psychology Review 47(2):183-195.",
     "doi": "10.17105/SPR-2017-0030.V47-2",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "1,836 assessed students in 779 Virginia schools: no Black, Hispanic or White disparity in out-of-school suspension, transfer or legal action after assessment",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Racial/Ethnic Parity in Disciplinary Consequences Using Student Threat Assessment",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Cornell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 54,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_17105_SPR_2017_0030_V47_2.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Maeng JL, Cornell DG, Edwards K (2024). Threat assessment and disparities in school discipline. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management 11(3):186-196.",
     "doi": "10.1037/tam0000213",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Florida statewide cases: disparities in exclusionary outcomes after threat assessment were smaller than in general discipline, but Black students were over-referred relative to enrollment",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Threat assessment and disparities in school discipline.",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "Journal of Threat Assessment and Management",
      "first_author": "Maeng",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 9,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Nekvasil EK, Cornell DG (2015). Student threat assessment associated with safety in middle schools. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management 2(2):98-113.",
     "doi": "10.1037/tam0000038",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Virginia middle schools using the guidelines had lower student-reported bullying and higher willingness to seek help than schools using other approaches",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Student threat assessment associated with safety in middle\n\t\t\t\t\t\tschools.",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Threat Assessment and Management",
      "first_author": "Nekvasil",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 41,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cornell DG, Sheras PL, Gregory A, Fan X (2009). A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the Virginia Threat Assessment Guidelines versus alternative approaches. School Psychology Quarterly 24(2):119-129.",
     "doi": "10.1037/a0016182",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "High schools using the guidelines reported fewer long-term suspensions, less bullying and more help-seeking than schools using locally developed procedures or none",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the Virginia threat assessment guidelines versus alternative approaches.",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "School Psychology Quarterly",
      "first_author": "Cornell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 169,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1037_a0016182.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Burnette AG, Datta P, Cornell D (2018). The distinction between transient and substantive student threats. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management 5(1):4-20.",
     "doi": "10.1037/tam0000092",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Most threats are transient and resolve without discipline; the transient versus substantive classification is the mechanism that avoids exclusion",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The distinction between transient and substantive student\n\t\t\t\t\t\tthreats.",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Threat Assessment and Management",
      "first_author": "Burnette",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 30,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "US Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center (2019). Protecting America's Schools: A U.S. Secret Service Analysis of Targeted School Violence.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.secretservice.gov/sites/default/files/2020-04/Protecting_Americas_Schools.pdf",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "In 41 targeted attacks, every attacker showed concerning behavior and most communicated intent beforehand, which is the premise for a multidisciplinary threat assessment process",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Number of threat assessments per 1,000 students by school and demographic group; share classified transient versus substantive; share of assessed students who received out-of-school suspension, expulsion, alternative placement, law-enforcement referral, or counseling and a support plan; referral rate by race, disability status and gender compared with enrollment; team training completion; number of assessed threats later carried out.",
   "standard": "The policy shall establish a multidisciplinary threat assessment team at every school using a named, evidence-based model (CSTAG or equivalent), require initial and refresher training for every team member, require that the team's default response is support and supervision rather than exclusion, and require annual reporting of case counts, outcomes and demographic referral rates to the Board.",
   "model_clause": "Each school shall maintain a threat assessment team composed at minimum of an administrator, a school counselor or psychologist, and a school resource officer or other law-enforcement liaison, trained in the Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines or another model with published controlled evaluation. The team shall classify each threat as transient or substantive, shall develop a written support and supervision plan for every substantive case, and shall not impose out-of-school suspension, expulsion or law-enforcement referral solely because a threat assessment was opened. Every team member shall complete initial training before serving and a refresher at least every three years, and the Director of Student Services shall keep the training roster. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by September 30 of each year the number of assessments by school, the transient and substantive counts, the disciplinary, law-enforcement and counseling outcomes, the referral rate per 1,000 students by race, disability status and gender compared with enrollment, and any threat later carried out.",
   "red_flags": [
    "threat assessment described as an investigation whose outcome is suspension or expulsion",
    "any threat treated as automatic exclusion ('zero tolerance for threats')",
    "team consists only of administrators or only of law enforcement",
    "no training requirement or no named model",
    "no distinction between transient and substantive threats",
    "police notification required for every threat regardless of classification",
    "no reporting of referral rates by demographic group"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "threat assessment",
     "threat assessment team",
     "CSTAG",
     "behavioral threat assessment",
     "threats of violence"
    ],
    "regex": "threat assessment|threat management|CSTAG|BTAM|threats? of violence"
   },
   "law_notes": "Virginia Code 22.1-79.4 (2013) was the first statewide mandate for threat assessment teams in every public school. Florida Statutes 1006.07(7) (Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Act, 2018) requires a threat assessment team in every school using a state-standardized instrument. Texas Education Code 37.115 (SB 11, 2019) requires safe and supportive school teams for threat assessment. Roughly a dozen other states have since mandated or funded teams. FERPA permits sharing education records with the team under the health-or-safety emergency and school-official exceptions; the IDEA manifestation determination still applies to any disciplinary change of placement for a student with a disability.",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Student Services",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent designates the Director of Student Services as the district threat assessment coordinator and names the three required members (administrator, counselor or psychologist, and law-enforcement liaison) for every school's team within 30 days.",
     "The Director of Student Services contracts CSTAG or an equivalent model with published controlled evaluation and schedules initial training so every team member completes it before serving.",
     "The Director of Student Services builds the training roster and a case log that records, for each threat, the transient or substantive classification, the support and supervision plan, and every disciplinary, law-enforcement and counseling outcome.",
     "The Director of Student Services, with district counsel, issues written guidance to principals that opening an assessment is not by itself grounds for out-of-school suspension, expulsion or police referral, and that IDEA manifestation determination applies to any change of placement for a student with a disability.",
     "Each principal briefs staff and families on how to report a concern and what a threat assessment is, within 90 days."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each school team classifies every reported threat as transient or substantive and the Director of Student Services spot-checks that every substantive case has a written support and supervision plan within 180 days.",
     "The Director of Student Services computes referral rates per 1,000 students by race, disability status and gender against enrollment for each school and flags any school whose rate departs from its enrollment share.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first annual report to the Board by September 30 with assessment counts by school, transient and substantive counts, outcomes, demographic referral rates and any threat later carried out.",
     "The Director of Student Services confirms 100 percent of team members hold current initial training by the end of year one and records the date each refresher falls due."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by September 30 each year and the Board reviews the demographic referral rates and outcome shares in open session.",
     "The Director of Student Services keeps every team member on a refresher cycle of no more than three years and replaces departing members before a team operates short.",
     "The Director of Student Services reviews any assessed threat later carried out as a case study and reports corrective steps to the Board within 90 days."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of assessed students who received out-of-school suspension, expulsion, alternative placement or law-enforcement referral versus the share who received counseling and a support plan, and the referral rate per 1,000 students by race, disability status and gender compared with enrollment.",
    "baseline": "First-year September 30 report: count of assessments by school, the transient versus substantive split, outcome shares, demographic referral rates, team training completion, and any threat carried out.",
    "target": "Within 1 to 3 years, the share of assessed students receiving counseling and a support plan rises each year while the share receiving out-of-school suspension, expulsion, alternative placement or law-enforcement referral falls each year; every substantive case has a written plan; team training completion is 100 percent; the referral rate by race, disability status and gender matches enrollment with no group gap; and assessed threats later carried out stay near the published level of about 1 in 100 or below.",
    "benchmark": "CSTAG schools in a randomized trial showed long-term suspension OR 0.35 and alternative placement OR 0.13 compared with controls, and statewide Virginia comparisons showed suspension OR 0.59 and police action OR 0.47 versus generic procedures, with about 1 in 100 threats attempted and no Black-White suspension gap among assessed students; the entry gives no district-level numeric target, so the target is directional.",
    "report": "Superintendent to the Board by September 30 each year, as the clause requires, with a one-page comparison to the prior year and to the published CSTAG figures."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "support-default-response",
     "text": "The policy requires that the threat assessment team's default response is support and supervision rather than exclusion.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "team-every-school",
     "text": "The policy establishes a multidisciplinary threat assessment team at every school.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "named-evidence-based-model",
     "text": "The policy names an evidence-based threat assessment model, such as CSTAG or an equivalent, that the teams use.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "member-training",
     "text": "The policy requires initial and refresher training for every threat assessment team member.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-board-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires annual reporting to the Board of case counts, outcomes and demographic referral rates.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "hazing-and-athletics-safety",
   "domain": "Hazing and athletics safety",
   "category": "safety",
   "outcomes": [
    "physical-health",
    "safety",
    "mental-health",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Hazing is common in high school (48 percent of students in groups report hazing activities, 17 percent of grade 6 to 12 athletes in one survey, and only 14 percent of hazed students call it hazing), but no controlled study shows that any hazing policy or program reduces hazing; the evidence supports clear definitions, mandatory reporting and consent-does-not-matter language as a standard. For concussion, state remove-from-play and return-to-play laws produced a rise in reported concussions (better identification) followed by falling recurrent-concussion rates about 2.6 years after passage, and mandated preseason heat-acclimatization rules cut exertional heat illness in football by roughly half.",
   "effect": "Hazing: prevalence 17% (athletes) to 48% (all group members); no measured program effect. Concussion laws: reported concussions up (reporting 47% to 71%), recurrent concussion rate declining 2.6 years post-law; incident rate trend reversed from +1.85% to -1.08% per month. Heat rules: exertional heat illness IRR about 0.45 (95% CI 0.23 to 0.87).",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "The hazing half of this domain is tier D: prevalence surveys are old (Alfred 2000, Hazing in View 2008, Gershel 2003) and self-reported, and the only published high school prevention evaluation is a two-school pilot that measured knowledge, not behavior. For concussion laws, all evaluations are ecological interrupted time series; the initial rise in reported concussions is almost certainly detection, and the later decline in new concussions could partly reflect reporting fatigue rather than prevention. Laws do not include prevention components (contact limits), and recurrent-concussion declines were larger but not statistically significant in states that named the clearing provider. Emergency action plans, athletic trainer coverage and sudden cardiac arrest protocols rest on professional-body standards (NATA, Korey Stringer Institute) with policy rankings rather than outcome trials.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Hoover NC, Pollard NJ (2000). Initiation Rites in American High Schools: A National Survey. Alfred University.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.alfred.edu/about/news/studies/high-school-hazing/",
     "year": 2000,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "National survey: 48% of high school students in groups were subjected to hazing, 22% to dangerous hazing, only 14% labeled it hazing, 36% would not report",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Allan EJ, Madden M (2008). Hazing in View: College Students at Risk. University of Maine.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://stophazing.org/research/national-study",
     "year": 2008,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "11,482 students at 53 campuses: 55% of club and team members hazed; 47% arrived at college having already been hazed in high school; coaches or advisors aware in 25% of cases",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Allan EJ, Madden M (2012). The nature and extent of college student hazing. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 24(1):83-90.",
     "doi": "10.1515/ijamh.2012.012",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Peer-reviewed version of the national study: hazing spans athletics and many other groups and students rarely label it hazing, so policy must define the behaviors",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The nature and extent of college student hazing",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "ijamh",
      "first_author": "Allan",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 111,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1515_ijamh_2012_012.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gershel JC, Katz-Sidlow RJ, Small E, Zandieh S (2003). Hazing of suburban middle school and high school athletes. Journal of Adolescent Health 32(5):333-335.",
     "doi": "10.1016/s1054-139x(03)00021-1",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2003,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "17.4% of 1,105 grade 6 to 12 athletes had been hazed and many did not recognize it as abusive",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Hazing of suburban middle school and high school athletes",
      "year": 2003,
      "journal": "Journal of Adolescent Health",
      "first_author": "Gershel",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 44,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Diamond AB, Callahan ST, Chain KF, Solomon GS (2016). Qualitative review of hazing in collegiate and school sports: consequences from a lack of culture, knowledge and responsiveness. British Journal of Sports Medicine 50(3):149-153.",
     "doi": "10.1136/bjsports-2015-095603",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Review of sports hazing: harms include injury, alcohol poisoning, sexual assault and suicide; coach awareness and response are the modifiable factors",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Qualitative review of hazing in collegiate and school sports: consequences from a lack of culture, knowledge and responsiveness",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "British Journal of Sports Medicine",
      "first_author": "Diamond",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 64,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1136_bjsports_2015_095603.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hakkola L, Allan EJ, Kerschner D (2019). Applying utilization-focused evaluation to high school hazing prevention: a pilot intervention. Evaluation and Program Planning 75:61-68.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2019.05.005",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence on strength: the only published high school hazing prevention evaluation is a two-school pilot measuring knowledge, not hazing behavior",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Applying utilization-focused evaluation to high school hazing prevention: A pilot intervention",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Evaluation and Program Planning",
      "first_author": "Hakkola",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 9,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Yang J, Comstock RD, Yi H, Harvey HH, Xun P (2017). New and recurrent concussions in high-school athletes before and after traumatic brain injury laws, 2005-2016. American Journal of Public Health 107(12):1916-1922.",
     "doi": "10.2105/AJPH.2017.304056",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "8,043 concussions in High School RIO: reported new and recurrent concussion rates rose after laws (identification), and recurrent concussion rates declined about 2.6 years after passage",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "New and Recurrent Concussions in High-School Athletes Before and After Traumatic Brain Injury Laws, 2005–2016",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "American Journal of Public Health",
      "first_author": "Yang",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 91,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_2105_AJPH_2017_304056.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Arakkal AT, Baron AE, Lamb MM, Fields SK, Comstock RD (2020). Evaluating the effectiveness of traumatic brain injury state laws among high school athletes. Injury Epidemiology 7:12.",
     "doi": "10.1186/s40621-020-00241-6",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "2005-2018 piecewise regression: incident concussion trend reversed from +1.85% to -1.08% per standardized month after law passage; larger declines where the law named the clearing provider",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Evaluating the effectiveness of traumatic brain injury state laws among high school athletes",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Injury Epidemiology",
      "first_author": "Arakkal",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 11,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1186_s40621_020_00241_6.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gibson TB, Herring SA, Kutcher JS, Broglio SP (2015). Analyzing the effect of state legislation on health care utilization for children with concussion. JAMA Pediatrics 169(2):163-168.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.2320",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Commercially insured youth in all states: concussion health care utilization rose 92% in states with laws versus 75% without, consistent with laws driving evaluation of injured athletes",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Analyzing the Effect of State Legislation on Health Care Utilization for Children With Concussion",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "JAMA Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Gibson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 103,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamapediatrics_2014_2320.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bompadre V, Jinguji TM, Yanez ND, Satchell EK, Gilbert K, Burton M, Conrad EU, Herring SA (2014). Washington State's Lystedt Law in concussion documentation in Seattle public high schools. Journal of Athletic Training 49(4):486-492.",
     "doi": "10.4085/1062-6050-49.3.30",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Documented concussions doubled (RR 2.10) and days out of play rose about 7 after the first US concussion law",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Washington State's Lystedt Law in Concussion Documentation in Seattle Public High Schools",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Journal of Athletic Training",
      "first_author": "Bompadre",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 80,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_4085_1062_6050_49_3_30.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "LaRoche AA, Nelson LD, Connelly PK, Walter KD, McCrea MA (2016). Sport-related concussion reporting and state legislative effects. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine 26(1):33-39.",
     "doi": "10.1097/JSM.0000000000000192",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Concussion incidence unchanged (16.6% vs 15.3%) but reporting rose from 47% to 71% between 1999-2002 and 2013, so laws change reporting more than injury rates",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Sport-Related Concussion Reporting and State Legislative Effects",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine",
      "first_author": "LaRoche",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 99,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1097_JSM_0000000000000192.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Harvey HH (2013). Reducing traumatic brain injuries in youth sports: youth sports traumatic brain injury state laws, January 2009-December 2012. American Journal of Public Health 103(7):1249-1254.",
     "doi": "10.2105/AJPH.2012.301107",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Legal mapping of the three core components adopted across states: education, immediate removal, and written clearance by a licensed provider before return",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Reducing Traumatic Brain Injuries in Youth Sports: Youth Sports Traumatic Brain Injury State Laws, January 2009–December 2012",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "American Journal of Public Health",
      "first_author": "Harvey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 124,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_2105_AJPH_2012_301107.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kerr ZY, Register-Mihalik JK, Pryor RR, Pierpoint LA, Scarneo SE, Adams WM, Kucera KL, Casa DJ, Marshall SW (2019). The association between mandated preseason heat acclimatization guidelines and exertional heat illness during preseason high school American football practices. Environmental Health Perspectives 127(4):047003.",
     "doi": "10.1289/EHP4163",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Interrupted time series over 455 state-years: exertional heat illness rate in preseason football was lower by roughly half in state-years with mandated acclimatization rules (95% CI 0.23 to 0.87)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Association between Mandated Preseason Heat Acclimatization Guidelines and Exertional Heat Illness during Preseason High School American Football Practices",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Environmental Health Perspectives",
      "first_author": "Kerr",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 78,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1289_EHP4163.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Adams WM, Scarneo SE, Casa DJ (2017). State-level implementation of health and safety policies to prevent sudden death and catastrophic injuries within secondary school athletics. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 5(9):2325967117727262.",
     "doi": "10.1177/2325967117727262",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Rubric of evidence-based policies (cardiac arrest, head injury, heat stroke, medical coverage, emergency preparedness): median state score 47%, so district policy must fill gaps the state leaves",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "State-Level Implementation of Health and Safety Policies to Prevent Sudden Death and Catastrophic Injuries Within Secondary School Athletics",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine",
      "first_author": "Adams",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 42,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2325967117727262.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Hazing: number of hazing reports and substantiated cases per season by team or group; climate-survey item on initiation experiences; share of coaches and activity sponsors with current hazing training. Athletics safety: concussions recorded in the athletic trainer injury log per 1,000 athlete-exposures, share with documented written clearance before return, days to return; exertional heat illness and cardiac events per season; share of venues with a rehearsed emergency action plan and an AED within three minutes; athletic trainer coverage by sport.",
   "standard": "The policy shall define hazing by listed behaviors regardless of consent, require every coach, sponsor and student participant to receive annual training, require coaches to report suspected hazing to the principal within 24 hours, and require immediate removal from play after a suspected concussion with written clearance by a licensed health care provider, a preseason heat-acclimatization schedule, and a venue-specific emergency action plan rehearsed annually.",
   "model_clause": "Hazing, meaning any act required as a condition of joining or remaining in any team, club or group that endangers the physical or mental health or safety of a student or subjects a student to humiliation, including physical abuse, forced consumption of any substance, excessive exercise, sleep deprivation, confinement, forced nudity or sexual acts, ridicule or degrading tasks, and coercion to break the law or Board policy, is prohibited regardless of consent. Every coach, activity sponsor and student participant shall complete hazing-prevention training each year before the season. Every coach and sponsor shall report suspected hazing to the principal within 24 hours, and the principal shall report each case to the Superintendent within three school days. Every student athlete and parent shall sign a hazing and concussion acknowledgment each year. A student suspected of a concussion shall be removed from practice or play immediately and shall not return until a licensed health care provider trained in concussion management provides written clearance, with a graduated return-to-learn plan coordinated by the school nurse. Preseason practices shall follow the National Athletic Trainers' Association heat-acclimatization schedule. Each athletic venue shall have a written venue-specific emergency action plan rehearsed with local EMS each August, and an automated external defibrillator shall be reachable within three minutes of every practice and competition site. The Athletic Director shall report to the Board by July 31 each year the number of hazing reports and substantiated cases by activity, concussions and other serious injuries by sport, compliance with return-to-play clearance, and emergency action plan rehearsal dates by venue.",
   "red_flags": [
    "hazing addressed only as 'initiation activities are discouraged' or only within a code-of-conduct list",
    "consent or voluntary participation treated as a defense",
    "no training requirement for coaches or sponsors",
    "return to play after concussion permitted on coach or parent judgment",
    "no mention of return-to-learn or academic accommodations after concussion",
    "no heat-acclimatization schedule or no emergency action plan requirement",
    "no athletic trainer or no AED requirement for competitions"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "hazing",
     "initiation",
     "concussion",
     "head injury",
     "return to play",
     "return to learn",
     "heat acclimatization",
     "emergency action plan",
     "AED",
     "athletic trainer"
    ],
    "regex": "hazing|initiation (rite|activit)|concussion|head injur|return[- ]to[- ](play|learn|participation)|heat (acclimati[sz]ation|illness)|emergency action plan|\\bAEDs?\\b|automated external defibrillator"
   },
   "law_notes": "All 50 states and the District of Columbia enacted youth sports concussion laws between 2009 (Washington's Lystedt Law) and 2014, nearly all with the three core components: education of athletes, parents and coaches; immediate removal from play; and written clearance by a licensed provider before return. Forty-four states have criminal anti-hazing statutes (Alaska, Hawaii, Montana, New Mexico, South Dakota and Wyoming do not); many apply to secondary schools and some require district policies. The federal Stop Campus Hazing Act (December 2024) applies only to higher education. Several state athletic associations mandate heat-acclimatization periods and emergency action plans; the Korey Stringer Institute ranks state high school policies at https://koreystringer.institute.uconn.edu/state-high-school-sports-safety-policies/.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "model_clause_previous": "Hazing, defined as any act that endangers the physical or mental health or safety of a student or subjects a student to humiliation as a condition of joining or remaining in any team, club or group, is prohibited whether or not the student consents. Every coach and activity sponsor shall complete hazing-prevention training before the season and shall report suspected hazing to the principal within 24 hours; the principal shall report each case to the Superintendent within three school days. Every student athlete and parent shall sign a hazing and concussion acknowledgment each year. A student suspected of a concussion shall be removed from practice or play immediately and shall not return until a licensed health care provider trained in concussion management provides written clearance, with a graduated return-to-learn plan coordinated by the school nurse. Preseason practices shall follow the National Athletic Trainers' Association heat-acclimatization schedule, each athletic venue shall have a written emergency action plan rehearsed with local EMS each August, and an automated external defibrillator shall be reachable within three minutes of every practice and competition site. The Athletic Director shall report to the Board by July 31 of each year the number of hazing reports and substantiated cases by activity, concussions and other serious injuries by sport, compliance with return-to-play clearance, and emergency action plan rehearsal dates by venue.",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Athletic Director, with the Superintendent accountable to the Board",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Athletic Director drafts the hazing definition, 24-hour coach reporting rule, consent-does-not-matter language and remove-from-play standard into administrative regulations and brings them to the Board for adoption within 60 days.",
     "The Athletic Director inventories every athletic venue and records which have a written venue-specific emergency action plan and an AED reachable within three minutes, reporting gaps to the Superintendent within 90 days.",
     "The school nurse and Athletic Director select a licensed-provider concussion clearance form and a graduated return-to-learn template and distribute them to every building within 90 days.",
     "The Superintendent assigns the Athletic Director and principals to confirm each coach and activity sponsor has completed hazing-prevention training before the next season begins.",
     "The Athletic Director sets up the athletic trainer injury log to record concussions per 1,000 athlete-exposures, documented written clearance and days to return, starting with the current season."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each principal collects a signed hazing and concussion acknowledgment from every student athlete and parent before the first practice of each season.",
     "The Athletic Director schedules and documents a rehearsal of each venue's emergency action plan with local EMS in August and records the date by venue.",
     "Every head coach runs preseason practices on the National Athletic Trainers' Association heat-acclimatization schedule, and the Athletic Director audits practice plans for compliance.",
     "The Superintendent adds a climate-survey item on initiation experiences in teams and groups and administers it to students in grades 6 to 12 within the first year."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Athletic Director reports to the Board by July 31 each year the hazing reports and substantiated cases by activity, concussions and serious injuries by sport, return-to-play clearance compliance, and emergency action plan rehearsal dates by venue.",
     "Each principal reports every hazing case to the Superintendent within three school days and confirms annual training completion for coaches, sponsors and student participants before each season.",
     "The Athletic Director reviews athletic trainer coverage by sport each year and recommends to the Superintendent any changes needed to maintain injury logging and immediate removal from play."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of coaches, sponsors and student participants with current hazing training; hazing reports and substantiated cases per season by team or group; climate-survey item on initiation experiences; concussions per 1,000 athlete-exposures and share with documented written clearance before return; exertional heat illness and cardiac events per season; share of venues with a rehearsed emergency action plan and an AED within three minutes.",
    "baseline": "Set in year one from the first season of athletic trainer injury logs, the first climate survey, the training roster, and the venue inventory; the district has no prior hazing or concussion counts of its own.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, 100 percent of coaches and sponsors trained before the season, 100 percent of venues with a rehearsed emergency action plan and an AED within three minutes, and 100 percent of concussion returns with documented written clearance. Reported concussions and hazing reports are expected to rise in the first 1 to 2 years as identification improves; within 3 years, the recurrent-concussion rate and exertional heat illness count per season should decline from the year-one baseline, consistent with the 2.6-year post-law decline and the roughly 0.45 incidence rate ratio seen for heat rules.",
    "benchmark": "Hazing: national prevalence of 17 percent of grade 6 to 12 athletes and 48 percent of students in groups, with only 14 percent of hazed students calling it hazing; no controlled study gives a program-effect benchmark, so the hazing target is directional. Concussion: state laws raised reporting from 47 to 71 percent and reversed the incident trend from +1.85 to -1.08 percent per month, with recurrent concussions falling about 2.6 years after passage. Heat: mandated acclimatization cut exertional heat illness in football by about half (IRR 0.45, 95 percent CI 0.23 to 0.87).",
    "report": "Athletic Director to the Board by July 31 each year, with the Superintendent presenting the climate-survey initiation item and any substantiated hazing cases in the same report."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "hazing-defined-regardless-of-consent",
     "text": "The policy defines hazing by listed behaviors and states that the definition applies regardless of the participant's consent.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-training-all-participants",
     "text": "The policy requires every coach, sponsor and student participant to receive annual hazing training.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "coach-report-24-hours",
     "text": "The policy requires coaches to report suspected hazing to the principal within 24 hours.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "concussion-removal-and-clearance",
     "text": "The policy requires immediate removal from play after a suspected concussion, with return permitted only on written clearance by a licensed health care provider.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "preseason-heat-acclimatization",
     "text": "The policy requires a preseason heat-acclimatization schedule.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "emergency-action-plan-rehearsed",
     "text": "The policy requires a venue-specific emergency action plan that is rehearsed annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "lockdown-and-active-shooter-drills",
   "domain": "Lockdown and active shooter drills",
   "category": "safety",
   "outcomes": [
    "safety",
    "mental-health",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "Announced, procedure-only lockdown drills paired with training raise students' and staff's sense of preparedness and correct execution (classroom procedural accuracy up 27 percentage points after training) without raising measured anxiety, and students in one district reported less fear and lower perceived risk after drills. High-intensity simulations with actors, gunfire or deception are a different intervention: a 114-school interrupted time series of 54 million social media posts found anxiety and stress up 42 percent and depression up 39 percent after active shooter drills, and the American Academy of Pediatrics calls for ending children's participation in high-intensity drills and prohibiting deception.",
   "effect": "Procedure-only drills with training: preparedness up, lockdown accuracy +27 points, state anxiety not higher (one study lower) post-drill; simulation-style drills: anxiety and stress +42%, depression +39% in community social media after drills; 60% of youth in a national text poll say drills make them feel scared and hopeless.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "No randomized or controlled comparison of drill types exists; the preparedness and anxiety findings come from pre-post surveys without control groups, mostly from one research team (Schildkraut and Nickerson) in one large urban district and one rural high school. The Everytown and Georgia Tech social media study cannot separate the effect of the drill from news coverage or the type of drill, and was funded by an advocacy organization. Avoidance behaviors increased after drills even as fear fell. No study shows that drills reduce deaths; the real-event analysis of lockdowns is descriptive. Younger children, students with disabilities and students with trauma histories are under-studied, and the effects of monthly drill frequencies mandated in some states are unknown.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "ElSherief M, Saha K, Gupta P, Mishra S, Seybolt J, Xie J, O'Toole M, Burd-Sharps S, De Choudhury M (2021). Impacts of school shooter drills on the psychological well-being of American K-12 school communities: a social media study. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 8:315.",
     "doi": "10.1057/s41599-021-00993-6",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Interrupted time series on 54 million posts around drills in 114 schools in 33 states: anxiety, stress and depression language up 39 to 42% after drills",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Impacts of school shooter drills on the psychological well-being of American K-12 school communities: a social media study",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Humanities and Social Sciences Communications",
      "first_author": "ElSherief",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 44,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1057_s41599_021_00993_6.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, American Federation of Teachers, National Education Association (2020, updated 2024). The Impact of Active Shooter Drills in Schools.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://everytownresearch.org/report/the-impact-of-active-shooter-drills-in-schools/",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Report version of the Georgia Tech study with recommendations: no simulations, advance notice to parents and students, announced drills, age-appropriate content, tracking of outcomes",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schildkraut J, Nickerson AB (2020). Ready to respond: effects of lockdown drills and training on school emergency preparedness. Victims and Offenders 15(5):619-638.",
     "doi": "10.1080/15564886.2020.1749199",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Large urban district, three waves: training plus drill raised perceived preparedness and raised correct classroom lockdown execution by an average of 27%",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Ready to Respond: Effects of Lockdown Drills and Training on School Emergency Preparedness",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Victims &amp; Offenders",
      "first_author": "Schildkraut",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 42,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_15564886_2020_1749199.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schildkraut J, Nickerson AB (2022). Effects of lockdown drills on students' fear, perceived risk, and use of avoidance behaviors: a quasi-experimental study. Criminal Justice Policy Review 33(8):787-813.",
     "doi": "10.1177/08874034221089867",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "More than 10,000 students over three timepoints: fear and perceived risk fell after drills and training, avoidance behaviors rose",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of Lockdown Drills on Students’ Fear, Perceived Risk, and Use of Avoidance Behaviors: A Quasi-Experimental Study",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Criminal Justice Policy Review",
      "first_author": "Schildkraut",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 20,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_08874034221089867.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Nickerson AB, Schildkraut J (2021). State anxiety prior to and after participating in lockdown drills among students in a rural high school. School Psychology Review 53(6):619-631.",
     "doi": "10.1080/2372966X.2021.1875790",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "State anxiety measured one week before (n = 610) and immediately after (n = 736) a procedure-only lockdown drill was low at both points and lower after the drill",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "State Anxiety Prior to and After Participating in Lockdown Drills Among Students in a Rural High School",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Nickerson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 19,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_2372966X_2021_1875790.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schildkraut J, Nickerson AB, Ristoff T (2020). Locks, lights, out of sight: assessing students' perceptions of emergency preparedness across multiple lockdown drills. Journal of School Violence 19(1):93-106.",
     "doi": "10.1080/15388220.2019.1703720",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Repeated drills sustained students' perceived preparedness across the year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Locks, Lights, Out of Sight: Assessing Students’ Perceptions of Emergency Preparedness across Multiple Lockdown Drills",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of School Violence",
      "first_author": "Schildkraut",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 46,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_15388220_2019_1703720.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schildkraut J, Greene-Colozzi E, Nickerson AB, Florczykowski A (2023). Can school lockdowns save lives? An assessment of drills and use in real-world events. Journal of School Violence 22(2):167-182.",
     "doi": "10.1080/15388220.2022.2162533",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Continued drilling maintains procedural mastery, and descriptive analysis of real shootings finds fewer casualties where lockdown was used",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Can School Lockdowns Save Lives? An Assessment of Drills and Use in Real-World Events",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Journal of School Violence",
      "first_author": "Schildkraut",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 20,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_15388220_2022_2162533.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Zhe EJ, Nickerson AB (2007). Effects of an intruder crisis drill on children's knowledge, anxiety, and perceptions of school safety. School Psychology Review 36(3):501-508.",
     "doi": "10.1080/02796015.2007.12087936",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2007,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Small randomized study of elementary students: an announced drill with instruction increased knowledge of the procedure without increasing anxiety",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of an Intruder Crisis Drill on Children's Knowledge, Anxiety, and Perceptions of School Safety",
      "year": 2007,
      "journal": "School Psychology Review",
      "first_author": "Zhe",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 56,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_02796015_2007_12087936.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dickson MJ, Vargo KK (2017). Training kindergarten students lockdown drill procedures using behavioral skills training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 50(2):407-412.",
     "doi": "10.1002/jaba.369",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Instruction, modeling and rehearsal taught kindergartners the lockdown steps; procedure can be taught without simulation",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Training kindergarten students lockdown drill procedures using behavioral skills training",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis",
      "first_author": "Dickson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 54,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_jaba_369.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Huskey MG, Connell NM (2021). Preparation or provocation? Student perceptions of active shooter drills. Criminal Justice Policy Review 32(1):3-26.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0887403419900316",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: college students who experienced active shooter drills in high school reported more fear, higher perceived risk and lower perceived school safety",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Preparation or Provocation? Student Perceptions of Active Shooter Drills",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Criminal Justice Policy Review",
      "first_author": "Huskey",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 39,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0887403419900316.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Moore-Petinak N, Waselewski M, Patterson BA, Chang T (2020). Active shooter drills in the United States: a national study of youth experiences and perceptions. Journal of Adolescent Health 67(4):509-513.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.06.015",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "National text poll of 815 youth: 60% said drills make them feel scared and hopeless, 56% said drills teach what to do; drill methods vary widely",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Active Shooter Drills in the United States: A National Study of Youth Experiences and Perceptions",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Adolescent Health",
      "first_author": "Moore-Petinak",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 43,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schonfeld DJ, Rossen E, Woodard D, et al., American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Injury, Violence, and Poison Prevention and Council on School Health (2020). Participation of children and adolescents in live crisis drills and exercises. Pediatrics 146(3):e2020015503.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2020-015503",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "AAP policy: eliminate children's involvement in high-intensity active shooter drills, prohibit deception, and accommodate vulnerable students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Participation of Children and Adolescents in Live Crisis Drills and Exercises",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": "Schonfeld",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 30,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2020_015503.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of School Resource Officers, Safe and Sound Schools (2021). Best Practice Considerations for Armed Assailant Drills in Schools.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources-and-podcasts/school-safety-and-crisis/systems-level-prevention/best-practice-guidance-for-school-safety-and-lockdown-drills",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Joint professional guidance: announce drills, exclude simulation, involve mental health staff in planning, provide an opt-out and debrief, and use data to improve drills",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Number and type of drills held per school per year (procedure-only versus simulation, announced versus unannounced); share of classrooms executing the lockdown procedure correctly in observed drills; student and staff perceived-preparedness and anxiety items on the annual climate survey before and after drills; counseling referrals in the week after each drill; parent notification compliance.",
   "standard": "The policy shall require lockdown drills to be announced in advance to staff, students and families, to teach the procedure without simulated gunfire, actors, props or deception, to be developmentally adjusted and accommodate students with disabilities and trauma histories, to include a debrief, and to be observed and reported annually; student participation in any high-intensity simulation shall be prohibited.",
   "model_clause": "Each school shall conduct lockdown drills at the frequency required by state law. Every drill shall be announced to staff, students and families at least one school day in advance and again immediately before it begins, and shall practice the lockdown procedure only. No drill in which students participate shall use simulated gunfire, weapons, actors posing as attackers, theatrical injuries, or any statement that the event is real. Students with disabilities, students with known trauma histories and students in pre-kindergarten through grade 2 shall receive accommodations set in advance by the school counselor and the building administrator, and a parent may excuse a student from any drill. Each drill shall be observed by an administrator using a procedural checklist and followed by a classroom debrief the same day. The Director of Safety shall report to the Board by June 30 of each year the number, type and date of drills held in each school, procedural accuracy results, counseling contacts in the week following each drill, and the drill-related items from the annual climate survey.",
   "red_flags": [
    "unannounced lockdown drills or drills 'conducted as if real'",
    "use of blanks, airsoft, simunition, actors, masks or fake blood with students present",
    "students instructed to attack or throw objects at an intruder (ALICE-style counter training) in elementary grades",
    "no parent notification requirement",
    "no accommodation for students with disabilities or trauma histories",
    "no debrief or follow-up",
    "no record of drills reported to the Board"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "lockdown",
     "lockdown drill",
     "active shooter",
     "active assailant",
     "armed intruder",
     "ALICE",
     "run hide fight",
     "emergency drill"
    ],
    "regex": "lock-?down|active (shooter|assailant|threat)|armed (intruder|assailant)|\\bALICE\\b|run,? hide,? fight|intruder drill"
   },
   "law_notes": "Most states mandate some number of lockdown or security drills per year (for example New York Education Law 807 requires four lockdown drills and eight evacuation drills; New Jersey requires one security drill per month). New York's 2024 regulation amendments require advance notice to parents and prohibit drills that mimic an actual shooting with actors or props. Florida Statutes 1006.07(4) requires active assailant drills at the same frequency as fire drills and, since 2023, requires age-appropriate, trauma-informed conduct and parent notification. Several states (for example Illinois, Oregon, Texas) have adopted trauma-informed drill requirements since 2021; districts should check their state's current drill statute before adopting a frequency.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Safety, with the Superintendent accountable to the Board",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Safety confirms the district's current state drill statute (for example New York Education Law 807, New Jersey monthly security drills, Florida Statutes 1006.07(4)) and sets the annual lockdown drill frequency for each school in writing.",
     "The Director of Safety and the Superintendent cancel any scheduled drill that uses simulated gunfire, weapons, actors posing as attackers, theatrical injuries or statements that the event is real, and notify principals in writing that student participation in such simulations is prohibited.",
     "The Director of Safety issues a one-page announced-drill protocol covering the one-school-day advance notice to staff, students and families, the immediate pre-drill announcement, the procedural checklist for administrator observation, and the same-day classroom debrief.",
     "Each building administrator and school counselor identify students with disabilities, students with known trauma histories and students in pre-kindergarten through grade 2 and record the accommodations set in advance for each group, along with the parent excusal process.",
     "The Director of Safety adds drill-related perceived-preparedness and anxiety items to the annual climate survey and sets up a log of counseling contacts in the week following each drill."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Each school conducts every required lockdown drill under the announced, procedure-only protocol, with an administrator completing the procedural checklist and the classroom debrief held the same day.",
     "The Director of Safety delivers staff training on the lockdown procedure in every school before the first drill of the year, since training is what moved procedural accuracy in the evidence.",
     "Building administrators confirm parent notification before every drill and document the date of notice and any parent excusals.",
     "The Director of Safety reports to the Board by June 30 the number, type and date of drills in each school, procedural accuracy results, counseling contacts in the week after each drill, and the drill-related climate survey items."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Safety reports annually to the Board by June 30 on drill counts and type, procedural accuracy, post-drill counseling contacts and climate survey drill items.",
     "The Director of Safety and the Superintendent recheck the state drill statute each year and amend the required frequency or conduct rules within 90 days of any change.",
     "Building administrators and school counselors update the accommodation lists for students with disabilities, trauma histories and grades pre-kindergarten through 2 at the start of each school year."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of drills that are announced and procedure-only; share of observed classrooms executing the lockdown procedure correctly; drill-related preparedness and anxiety items on the annual climate survey; counseling contacts in the week after each drill; parent notification compliance.",
    "baseline": "Year-one counts from the Director of Safety's first June 30 report: number and type of drills per school, first-year procedural accuracy, first-year climate survey drill items and post-drill counseling contacts, and the share of drills with documented parent notice.",
    "target": "Within one year, 100 percent of drills in which students participate are announced, procedure-only and preceded by parent notification, with zero simulation-style drills; from year one to year three, the share of classrooms executing the procedure correctly rises each year while drill-related anxiety items on the climate survey do not rise and post-drill counseling contacts do not increase.",
    "benchmark": "The evidence reports a 27 percentage point gain in classroom procedural accuracy after training with procedure-only drills and no rise in state anxiety; it gives no fixed accuracy threshold, so the accuracy target is directional. The 42 percent anxiety and 39 percent depression increases describe simulation-style drills the policy prohibits and serve only as the harm to avoid.",
    "report": "Annual report from the Director of Safety to the Board by June 30, with drill counts and types by school, procedural checklist results, post-drill counseling contacts, climate survey drill items and parent notification compliance."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "no-high-intensity-simulation",
     "text": "The policy prohibits student participation in any high-intensity simulation and bars simulated gunfire, actors, props or deception from lockdown drills.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "announced-in-advance",
     "text": "The policy requires lockdown drills to be announced in advance to staff, students and families.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "procedure-based-teaching",
     "text": "The policy requires lockdown drills to teach the lockdown procedure itself.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "developmental-and-disability-accommodati",
     "text": "The policy requires drills to be developmentally adjusted and to accommodate students with disabilities and trauma histories.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "debrief-required",
     "text": "The policy requires a debrief after each lockdown drill.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-observation-report",
     "text": "The policy requires lockdown drills to be observed and reported annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "school-police-sros",
   "domain": "School resource officers and school policing",
   "category": "safety",
   "outcomes": [
    "discipline",
    "safety",
    "equity-gaps",
    "graduation",
    "postsecondary",
    "climate"
   ],
   "finding": "The strongest causal studies agree that placing police in schools increases suspensions, expulsions, police referrals and arrests, with the largest increases for Black students, male students and students with disabilities; a Texas quasi-experiment ties federal school-police grants to a 6 percent rise in middle school discipline, a 2.5 percent drop in high school graduation and a 4 percent drop in college enrollment. Safety effects are mixed: a national regression discontinuity finds SROs reduce some violence but not gun incidents, while a matched COPS-grant study finds no safety gain and more recorded drug and weapon offenses.",
   "effect": "Discipline +6% (Texas); graduation -2.5%, college enrollment -4%; exclusionary discipline rate ratio 1.21 (meta-analysis); suspensions, referrals and arrests up with largest effects for Black students and students with disabilities; some non-gun violence down (RD), gun incidents unchanged.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Sorensen et al. 2023 find real reductions in some forms of in-school violence, and Owens 2017 finds SROs improve measured safety and help police make drug arrests, so the claim that SROs do nothing for safety is not supported. Much of the recorded-offense increase may be detection and reporting rather than more misbehavior. Several studies identify effects off federal COPS grants, which may not generalize to districts that fund officers locally. The 2023 Campbell review found no true experiments and high heterogeneity, with the direction of effects depending on how officers are used; surveys show many students and staff feel safer with an officer present. Officer role (law enforcement only versus mixed mentoring role) changes recording and referral behavior, which is why the MOU, not the headcount, is the policy lever.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Sorensen LC, Avila-Acosta M, Engberg JB, Bushway SD (2023). The thin blue line in schools: new evidence on school-based policing across the U.S. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 42(4):941-970.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22498",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "National fuzzy RD on COPS grant scores 2014-2018: SROs reduce some violence but not gun incidents, and intensify suspension, expulsion, police referral and arrest, most for Black, male and disabled students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The thin blue line in schools: New evidence on school‐based policing across the U.S.",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Sorensen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 45,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22498.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Gottfredson DC, Crosse S, Tang Z, Bauer EL, Harmon MA, Hagen CA, Greene AD (2020). Effects of school resource officers on school crime and responses to school crime. Criminology and Public Policy 19(3):905-940.",
     "doi": "10.1111/1745-9133.12512",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "33 schools adding SROs via COPS grants versus 72 matched schools: more recorded drug and weapon offenses and more exclusionary discipline, no safety improvement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of school resource officers on school crime and responses to school crime",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Criminology &amp; Public Policy",
      "first_author": "Gottfredson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 131,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_1745_9133_12512.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Weisburst EK (2019). Patrolling public schools: the impact of funding for school police on student discipline and long-term education outcomes. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 38(2):338-365.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.22116",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "2.5 million Texas students: COPS school-police grants raise middle school discipline 6%, mostly low-level offenses, largest for Black students; three-year grant exposure lowers graduation 2.5% and college enrollment 4%",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Patrolling Public Schools: The Impact of Funding for School Police on Student Discipline and Long‐term Education Outcomes",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Weisburst",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 150,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_22116.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Owens EG (2017). Testing the school-to-prison pipeline. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 36(1):11-37.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.21954",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence and nuance: COPS-funded SROs lead agencies to learn of and arrest for more school crimes, mostly children under 15, but also improve measured safety",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Testing the School‐to‐Prison Pipeline",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Owens",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 150,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_21954.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fisher BW, Hennessy EA (2016). School resource officers and exclusionary discipline in U.S. high schools: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Adolescent Research Review 1(3):217-233.",
     "doi": "10.1007/s40894-015-0006-8",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Seven quasi-experimental studies: SRO presence associated with higher exclusionary discipline, rate ratio 1.21, with high heterogeneity",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Resource Officers and Exclusionary Discipline in U.S. High Schools: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Adolescent Research Review",
      "first_author": "Fisher",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 124,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fisher BW, Petrosino A, Sutherland H, Guckenburg S, Fronius T, Benitez I, Earl K (2023). School-based law enforcement strategies to reduce crime, increase perceptions of safety, and improve learning outcomes in primary and secondary schools: a systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews 19(4):e1360.",
     "doi": "10.1002/cl2.1360",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "32 reports, 1,002 effect sizes, no true experiments: school policing associated with more recorded crime and discipline, no consistent gain in safety or learning",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School-based law enforcement strategies to reduce crime, increase perceptions of safety, and improve learning outcomes in primary and secondary schools: A systematic review",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World",
      "first_author": "Fisher",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 25,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_cl2_1360.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Na C, Gottfredson DC (2013). Police officers in schools: effects on school crime and the processing of offending behaviors. Justice Quarterly 30(4):619-650.",
     "doi": "10.1080/07418825.2011.615754",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "School Survey on Crime and Safety panel: as schools add police they record more weapon and drug crimes and refer a larger share of non-serious violence to law enforcement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Police Officers in Schools: Effects on School Crime and the Processing of Offending Behaviors",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Justice Quarterly",
      "first_author": "Na",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 352,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_07418825_2011_615754.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Devlin DN, Gottfredson DC (2018). The roles of police officers in schools: effects on the recording and reporting of crime. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 16(2):208-223.",
     "doi": "10.1177/1541204016680405",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Officer role matters: law-enforcement-only SROs record more crime, and even mixed-role SROs increase reporting to police, which is why the MOU must limit officer involvement in discipline",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Roles of Police Officers in Schools",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice",
      "first_author": "Devlin",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 97,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_1541204016680405.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Peterson J, Densley J, Erickson G (2021). Presence of armed school officials and fatal and nonfatal gunshot injuries during mass school shootings, United States, 1980-2019. JAMA Network Open 4(2):e2037394.",
     "doi": "10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.37394",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Across 133 school shootings and attempted shootings 1980-2019, the death rate was about 2.8 to 3.0 times higher where an armed officer was present (IRR 2.96, 95% CI 1.43 to 6.13)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Presence of Armed School Officials and Fatal and Nonfatal Gunshot Injuries During Mass School Shootings, United States, 1980-2019",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "JAMA Network Open",
      "first_author": "Peterson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 37,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1001_jamanetworkopen_2020_37394.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Livingston MD, Rossheim ME, Hall KS (2019). A descriptive analysis of school and school shooter characteristics and the severity of school shootings in the United States, 1999-2018. Journal of Adolescent Health 64(6):797-799.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.12.006",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Armed guards were not associated with reduced casualties in school shootings 1999-2018",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Descriptive Analysis of School and School Shooter Characteristics and the Severity of School Shootings in the United States, 1999–2018",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Journal of Adolescent Health",
      "first_author": "Livingston",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 73,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Annual counts and rates per 1,000 students of school-based arrests, citations, law-enforcement referrals and use of force, by school and by race, disability status and gender (the Civil Rights Data Collection reports referrals and arrests); share of referrals for non-criminal code-of-conduct matters; out-of-school suspension rate by school; student and staff perceived-safety items on the annual climate survey; complaints against officers.",
   "standard": "If the district places law-enforcement officers in schools, the policy shall require a written memorandum of understanding that bars officer involvement in routine discipline, defines the narrow conditions for arrest or referral, requires youth-specific training, and requires annual public reporting of arrests, referrals and use of force by school and demographic group; the Board shall review the data before renewing any officer assignment.",
   "model_clause": "No law-enforcement officer shall be assigned to a district school except under a written memorandum of understanding approved by the Board and the law-enforcement agency, reviewed annually. The memorandum shall provide that officers shall not participate in enforcing the student code of conduct, shall not be called for behavior that would be handled by school staff in the officer's absence, and shall not question a student about a school matter without an administrator present and parent notification, except in an imminent-safety emergency. Each officer shall complete training in adolescent development, de-escalation, disability awareness and implicit bias before assignment and annually thereafter, documented by the Director of Safety. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 15 of each year, and publish on the district website, the number of arrests, citations, law-enforcement referrals and uses of force in each school for the prior school year, disaggregated by race, disability status and gender, with the share arising from non-criminal conduct, and the Board shall review this report before renewing any officer assignment.",
   "red_flags": [
    "officers authorized to enforce the code of conduct or 'assist with discipline'",
    "no memorandum of understanding, or an MOU not reviewed by the Board",
    "no restriction on questioning or searching students without an administrator present",
    "no reporting of arrests or referrals by demographic group",
    "officer stationed in the discipline office",
    "mandatory police notification for low-level offenses such as disorderly conduct or 'disruption'",
    "no training requirement beyond state peace-officer certification"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "school resource officer",
     "SRO",
     "law enforcement",
     "police",
     "school police",
     "memorandum of understanding",
     "arrest",
     "referral to law enforcement"
    ],
    "regex": "school resource officer|\\bSROs?\\b|law enforcement officer|school police|police officer|referral to law enforcement"
   },
   "law_notes": "No federal mandate. Florida Statutes 1006.12 (2018) requires a safe-school officer at every public school. Texas SB 11 (2019) funds officers and mandates safety committees. Several states and large districts (for example Illinois Public Act 101-0282 and California AB 2316 proposals, and Minneapolis, Denver, Oakland board actions in 2020) regulate or removed officer assignments. The Civil Rights Data Collection requires every district to report school-related arrests and law-enforcement referrals, which is the baseline data source. The Fourth Amendment reasonable-suspicion standard for school searches (New Jersey v. T.L.O.) does not automatically extend to searches directed by police officers, and Miranda warnings apply to custodial questioning by officers (J.D.B. v. North Carolina, 2011).",
   "stakes": 4,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Safety as the day-to-day lead and the Board Safety Committee as the review body",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent and district counsel draft the memorandum of understanding with the law-enforcement agency, including the bar on code-of-conduct enforcement, the narrow arrest and referral conditions, the administrator-present and parent-notification rule for questioning, and the annual review date, and present it to the Board within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Safety pulls the district's most recent Civil Rights Data Collection submission on school-related arrests and law-enforcement referrals, adds citations and use-of-force counts from agency records, and files it with the Board as the baseline, disaggregated by school, race, disability status and gender.",
     "The Director of Safety arranges and documents completion of adolescent development, de-escalation, disability awareness and implicit bias training for every officer currently assigned, before any officer continues under the new memorandum.",
     "Each principal and the Director of Safety issue written guidance to school staff stating which behaviors are handled by school staff and may not be referred to an officer, and brief staff at a faculty meeting within 60 days.",
     "The Superintendent adds student and staff perceived-safety items and a question about officer interactions to the annual climate survey instrument."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Safety builds a single incident log that records every arrest, citation, law-enforcement referral and use of force by school, date, student demographic group and whether the underlying conduct was criminal or a code-of-conduct matter, and reviews it with principals each quarter.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first annual report to the Board by October 15 and publishes it on the district website, with the share of referrals arising from non-criminal conduct and out-of-school suspension rates by school.",
     "The Board holds a public review of the report and the baseline before voting on renewal of each officer assignment, and records in the minutes the data it relied on.",
     "District counsel and the Director of Safety establish a complaint channel for students and families regarding officer conduct and report complaint counts in the annual report."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 15 each year and the Board reviews the data before renewing any memorandum or officer assignment.",
     "The Director of Safety documents annual refresher training for every assigned officer and confirms the memorandum is re-signed by both parties each year.",
     "The Director of Safety reconciles the district incident log against the Civil Rights Data Collection submission each reporting cycle so the public figures match the federal filing."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Annual counts and rates per 1,000 students of school-based arrests, citations, law-enforcement referrals and uses of force, by school and by race, disability status and gender; share of referrals arising from non-criminal code-of-conduct matters; out-of-school suspension rate by school; perceived-safety items on the climate survey; complaints against officers.",
    "baseline": "The district's most recent Civil Rights Data Collection submission of school-related arrests and law-enforcement referrals, supplemented by agency records for citations and use of force, filed with the Board within the first 90 days and disaggregated by school and demographic group.",
    "target": "Within 1 year of adoption, the share of law-enforcement referrals arising from non-criminal code-of-conduct matters falls from baseline and continues to fall each year; within 3 years, arrest and referral rates per 1,000 students decline from baseline overall and for Black students, male students and students with disabilities, with the gap between those groups and the district rate narrowing each year, while perceived-safety items do not decline.",
    "benchmark": "The research reports effect sizes for officer presence (discipline up 6 percent, graduation down 2.5 percent, college enrollment down 4 percent, exclusionary discipline rate ratio 1.21) but gives no numeric standard for an acceptable arrest or referral rate, so the target is directional against the district's own baseline and against the Civil Rights Data Collection figures for comparable districts.",
    "report": "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 15 each year and publishes the report on the district website; the Board reviews it in a public meeting before voting on renewal of any officer assignment or memorandum of understanding."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "mou-bars-routine-discipline",
     "text": "The policy requires a written memorandum of understanding that bars officer involvement in routine student discipline.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "narrow-arrest-conditions",
     "text": "The policy requires the memorandum of understanding to define the narrow conditions under which an officer may arrest or refer a student.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "youth-specific-training",
     "text": "The policy requires officers placed in schools to complete youth-specific training.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-public-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires annual public reporting of arrests, referrals and use of force by school and demographic group.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "board-review-before-renewal",
     "text": "The policy requires the Board to review the reported data before renewing any officer assignment.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "class-size",
   "domain": "Class size in the early grades",
   "category": "staffing-and-instruction",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "postsecondary",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "The Tennessee STAR experiment shows that classes of 13 to 17 students in K-3 raise test scores by about 4 percentile points in the first year and roughly 1 point a year after, with larger gains for Black students and students on free lunch, and the same students were 2.7 percentage points more likely to attend college. Large-scale rollouts deliver less than the experiment because they dilute teacher quality and cost a great deal per student.",
   "effect": "STAR: +0.2 SD in K-3, college attendance +2.7 pp (+7.3 pp in the poorest third of schools); Campbell review pooled effect on reading small, on math null; California CSR gains partly offset by inexperienced teachers",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Hoxby (2000) finds no effect of class size in Connecticut and rules out even modest effects. Leuven and Lokken (2020) find no average long-run effect of class size in Norway. The Campbell systematic review (Filges et al. 2018) finds at best a small effect on reading and a non-significant negative effect on math across ten studies. Jepsen and Rivkin (2009) show that California's statewide reduction to 20 students raised achievement but the rush to hire 25,000 new teachers brought in uncertified and inexperienced staff, which dampened the gains most in high-poverty, high-minority schools. Chetty et al. (2011) find small classes raised college attendance but the effect on earnings at 27 is not statistically significant. Class size reduction is among the most expensive interventions per unit of effect; most reviews conclude money is better spent on teacher quality once classes are below the mid-20s.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Krueger AB (1999). Experimental estimates of education production functions. Quarterly Journal of Economics 114(2):497-532.",
     "doi": "10.1162/003355399556052",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/003355399556052",
     "year": 1999,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Project STAR (11,600 students randomized K-3): small classes raise test scores 4 percentile points in year one and about 1 point per year after; effects larger for minority and free-lunch students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Experimental Estimates of Education Production Functions",
      "year": 1999,
      "journal": "The Quarterly Journal of Economics",
      "first_author": "Krueger",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1127,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_003355399556052.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Chetty R, Friedman JN, Hilger N, Saez E, Schanzenbach DW, Yagan D (2011). How does your kindergarten classroom affect your earnings? Evidence from Project STAR. Quarterly Journal of Economics 126(4):1593-1660.",
     "doi": "10.1093/qje/qjr041",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr041",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "STAR students in small classes are significantly more likely to attend college; the earnings effect at 27 is positive but imprecise; classroom quality effects on earnings persist even as test-score effects fade",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "How Does Your Kindergarten Classroom Affect Your Earnings? Evidence from Project Star",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "The Quarterly Journal of Economics",
      "first_author": "Chetty",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1519,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1093_qje_qjr041.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dynarski S, Hyman J, Schanzenbach DW (2013). Experimental evidence on the effect of childhood investments on postsecondary attainment and degree completion. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 32(4):692-717.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.21715",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21715",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "small STAR classes raised college attendance by 2.7 percentage points (7.3 in the poorest third of schools) and degree completion by 1.6 points",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Experimental Evidence on the Effect of Childhood Investments on Postsecondary Attainment and Degree Completion",
      "year": 2013,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Dynarski",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 224,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_21715.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jepsen C, Rivkin S (2009). Class size reduction and student achievement: The potential tradeoff between teacher quality and class size. Journal of Human Resources 44(1):223-250.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.44.1.223",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.44.1.223",
     "year": 2009,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "California's K-3 reduction to 20 raised math and reading, but the surge of teachers with no experience or full certification offset part of the gain, most in high-poverty schools",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Class Size Reduction and Student Achievement",
      "year": 2009,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Jepsen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 60,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_44_1_223.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fredriksson P, Ockert B, Oosterbeek H (2013). Long-term effects of class size. Quarterly Journal of Economics 128(1):249-285.",
     "doi": "10.1093/qje/qjs048",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjs048",
     "year": 2013,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Swedish maximum-class-size rule: smaller classes at ages 10 to 13 raise cognitive and noncognitive skills, completed education, wages and earnings at ages 27 to 42, passing a cost-benefit test",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Long-Term Effects of Class Size *",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "The Quarterly Journal of Economics",
      "first_author": "Fredriksson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 363,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1093_qje_qjs048.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Angrist JD, Lavy V (1999). Using Maimonides' rule to estimate the effect of class size on scholastic achievement. Quarterly Journal of Economics 114(2):533-575.",
     "doi": "10.1162/003355399556061",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/003355399556061",
     "year": 1999,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "Israel's 40-student cap: smaller classes raise fourth- and fifth-grade reading and math scores",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Using Maimonides' Rule to Estimate the Effect of Class Size on Scholastic Achievement",
      "year": 1999,
      "journal": "The Quarterly Journal of Economics",
      "first_author": "Angrist",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1507,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_003355399556061.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Filges T, Sonne-Schmidt CS, Nielsen BCV (2018). Small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews 14(1):1-107.",
     "doi": "10.4073/csr.2018.10",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2018.10",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "127 studies screened, 10 meta-analysed: at best a small positive effect on reading and a non-significant negative effect on math; STAR results are more positive but do not change the overall picture",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: a systematic review",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World",
      "first_author": "Filges",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 55,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_4073_csr_2018_10.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hoxby CM (2000). The effects of class size on student achievement: New evidence from population variation. Quarterly Journal of Economics 115(4):1239-1285.",
     "doi": "10.1162/003355300555060",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300555060",
     "year": 2000,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: 649 Connecticut elementary schools, no significant class-size effect; rules out effects larger than 2 to 4 percent of a SD for a 10 percent reduction",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effects of Class Size on Student Achievement: New Evidence from Population Variation",
      "year": 2000,
      "journal": "The Quarterly Journal of Economics",
      "first_author": "Hoxby",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 951,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_003355300555060.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Leuven E, Lokken SA (2020). Long-term impacts of class size in compulsory school. Journal of Human Resources 55(1):309-348.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.55.2.0217.8574R2",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.55.2.0217.8574R2",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "counter-evidence: Norwegian class-size rule, 1982 to 2011 registers, no significant average effect on long-run income or educational attainment",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Long-Term Impacts of Class Size in Compulsory School",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Leuven",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 33,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_55_2_0217_8574R2.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Schanzenbach DW (2014). Does Class Size Matter? Policy brief. National Education Policy Center, Boulder CO.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/does-class-size-matter",
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "reading of the full literature: class size matters most in K-3 and for low-income students; the trade-off is cost and teacher supply",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Average and maximum section size in K-3 by school each October (student information system); share of K-3 sections above the cap; share of new K-3 teachers without full certification; K-3 reading and math benchmark growth by school.",
   "standard": "The policy shall set a numeric K-3 class-size cap (not above 20 students, or 22 with a full-time aide), shall apply the cap first in the highest-poverty schools, and shall pair any class-size reduction with a certification requirement for the teachers hired to meet it.",
   "model_clause": "Kindergarten through grade 3 general education classes shall not exceed 20 students, or 22 students when a full-time instructional aide is assigned to the class for the entire day. Where staffing or space does not permit every school to meet the cap in a given year, the Superintendent shall meet it first in the schools with the highest share of students eligible for free or reduced-price meals. Teachers hired to meet this cap shall hold full state certification for the grade taught. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 31 each year, by school, the average and maximum class size for each grade K-3, the number of sections exceeding the cap and the reason for each, and the share of K-3 teachers without full certification. Any section exceeding the cap after October 31 shall require written Board approval.",
   "red_flags": [
    "class size caps only as averages across the district rather than per section",
    "caps expressed as 'goals' or 'targets' with no reporting",
    "caps that may be waived by the principal without Board notice",
    "no cap for kindergarten or grade 1 while upper grades have one",
    "class size reduction funded by hiring uncertified or emergency-permit teachers",
    "combination classes used to circumvent the cap"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "class size",
     "pupil-teacher ratio",
     "student-teacher ratio",
     "section size",
     "class load",
     "maximum enrollment per class"
    ],
    "regex": "class[- ]size|pupil[- ]teacher ratio|student[- ]teacher ratio|students per (class|teacher|section)|class(room)? load"
   },
   "law_notes": "Florida's 2002 constitutional amendment (Art. IX s.1) caps core classes at 18 in K-3, 22 in grades 4-8 and 25 in 9-12. California's 1996 K-3 Class Size Reduction program funded classes of 20 or fewer; most states have no statutory cap but set caps or averages through collective bargaining or accreditation standards. Many state caps are averages or include waivers, so a district policy that is stricter than state law is meaningful.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Chief Financial Officer for staffing and budget and the Director of Human Resources for certification",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent pulls October enrollment from the student information system and publishes the average and maximum K-3 section size for every school, flagging each section above 20 students (or 22 with a full-time aide).",
     "The Director of Human Resources audits every current K-3 teacher of record and reports to the Superintendent the share without full state certification, by school.",
     "The Chief Financial Officer ranks schools by share of students eligible for free or reduced-price meals and costs out the teachers, aides and rooms needed to bring the highest-poverty schools under the cap first.",
     "The Superintendent brings the Board a written list of every section currently above the cap with the reason for each and a schedule for closing the gap, and requests written Board approval for any section that will stay above the cap this year."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Human Resources posts and fills K-3 positions for the next school year only with fully certified candidates, and reports monthly to the Superintendent on the share of offers made to uncertified applicants (target zero).",
     "The Superintendent assigns new sections, aides and rooms for the next school year to the highest-poverty schools first, so every K-3 section in those schools opens under the cap.",
     "The Superintendent files the first full compliance report to the Board by October 31, by school and grade, covering average and maximum size, sections above the cap with reasons, and the share of K-3 teachers without full certification.",
     "The Director of Assessment adds K-3 reading and math benchmark growth by school to the same October report so the Board can read class size and learning results side by side."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 31 every year and brings any section still above the cap for written Board approval, with the Board minutes recording the reason.",
     "The Director of Human Resources reports each spring the share of K-3 teachers hired in the past year who hold full state certification, and the Superintendent explains any hire that does not."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of K-3 general education sections above the cap (20 students, or 22 with a full-time aide) each October, by school; share of K-3 teachers without full state certification; K-3 reading and math benchmark growth by school.",
    "baseline": "First October count of K-3 section sizes and K-3 teacher certification status in the student information and human resources systems, taken within 90 days of adoption.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, zero K-3 sections above the cap in the schools with the highest share of students eligible for free or reduced-price meals; within 3 years, zero sections above the cap district-wide without written Board approval, and the share of new K-3 teachers without full certification at zero. K-3 reading and math benchmark growth in the schools brought under the cap should rise relative to their own baseline over the same 3 years.",
    "benchmark": "The Tennessee STAR experiment found classes of 13 to 17 students in K-3 raised test scores about 4 percentile points in the first year (about 0.2 SD) and about 1 point a year after, with college attendance up 2.7 percentage points overall and 7.3 points in the poorest third of schools. Florida's constitution caps K-3 core classes at 18; California's 1996 program funded classes of 20 or fewer, and its gains were partly offset by inexperienced teachers, which is why the certification requirement is paired with the cap. No district should expect the full STAR effect from a cap of 20 or 22.",
    "report": "Superintendent's annual report to the Board by October 31, by school and grade K-3, with average and maximum class size, the number of sections above the cap and the reason for each, the share of K-3 teachers without full certification, and K-3 reading and math benchmark growth; any over-cap section after October 31 recorded in Board minutes with written approval."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "k3-cap-20-or-22-aide",
     "text": "The policy sets a numeric K-3 class-size cap not above 20 students, or 22 students with a full-time aide.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "cap-per-section",
     "text": "The policy applies the cap to each individual class section rather than as a district-wide average.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "highest-poverty-first",
     "text": "The policy applies the class-size cap first in the highest-poverty schools.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "certified-teachers",
     "text": "The policy requires that teachers hired to meet a class-size reduction hold full certification.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "waiver-board-notice",
     "text": "The policy requires Board notice before any waiver of the K-3 class-size cap.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires reporting of actual K-3 class sizes against the cap.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "instructional-coaching",
   "domain": "Instructional coaching and professional development",
   "category": "staffing-and-instruction",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "teacher-retention"
   ],
   "finding": "A meta-analysis of 60 causal studies finds that one-on-one instructional coaching improves teaching practice by 0.49 SD and student achievement by 0.18 SD, far more than the one-off workshops that make up most district professional development, which show no achievement effect in large randomized trials. Effects shrink as programs scale (programs over 100 teachers: 0.34 SD practice, 0.10 SD achievement) and depend on coaches observing real lessons and giving specific feedback in cycles over a year.",
   "effect": "Coaching: +0.49 SD on instructional practice, +0.18 SD on student achievement (meta-analysis of 60 causal studies); at scale +0.34 and +0.10 SD. Content-focused workshops without coaching: null on achievement in IES RCTs. STEM PD meta-analysis: +0.21 SD when PD is paired with curriculum materials.",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Not all coaching works: Kraft and Blazar (2017) found large practice gains but no achievement gain in one year; Blazar and Kraft (2015) found the same program succeeded in one cohort and failed in the next when coaching dosage and school conditions changed; Kraft and Hill (2020) found web-based coaching improved observed instruction and student perceptions without a detectable achievement effect. Campbell and Malkus (2011) found math coaches had no effect in their first year and positive effects only in years two and three. Two IES randomized trials of intensive content PD (Garet et al. 2016; Jacob, Hill and Corey 2017) raised teacher knowledge but did not raise student achievement. Coaching is expensive (one coach per 10 to 20 teachers) and scaling dilutes coach quality. Studies are mostly elementary literacy and math with short follow-up.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Kraft, M. A., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2018). The Effect of Teacher Coaching on Instruction and Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of the Causal Evidence. Review of Educational Research 88(4):547-588.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654318759268",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318759268",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "60 causal studies: coaching effects of 0.49 SD on instruction and 0.18 SD on achievement; effects smaller in programs with more than 100 teachers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Teacher Coaching on Instruction and Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of the Causal Evidence",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1204,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654318759268.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Allen, J. P., Pianta, R. C., Gregory, A., Mikami, A. Y., & Lun, J. (2011). An Interaction-Based Approach to Enhancing Secondary School Instruction and Student Achievement. Science 333(6045):1034-1037.",
     "doi": "10.1126/science.1207998",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1207998",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "My Teaching Partner-Secondary coaching for 78 secondary teachers raised student achievement in the following year by 0.22 SD, moving the median student from the 50th to the 59th percentile",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "An Interaction-Based Approach to Enhancing Secondary School Instruction and Student Achievement",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Science",
      "first_author": "Allen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 592,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1126_science_1207998.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft, M. A., & Blazar, D. (2017). Individualized Coaching to Improve Teacher Practice Across Grades and Subjects: New Experimental Evidence. Educational Policy 31(7):1033-1068.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0895904816631099",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904816631099",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "MATCH coaching across grades and subjects raised observed instructional practice by about 0.6 SD, with no detectable achievement gain in the first year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Individualized Coaching to Improve Teacher Practice Across Grades and Subjects: New Experimental Evidence",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Educational Policy",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 99,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0895904816631099.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Blazar, D., & Kraft, M. A. (2015). Exploring Mechanisms of Effective Teacher Coaching: A Tale of Two Cohorts From a Randomized Experiment. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 37(4):542-566.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373715579487",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373715579487",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "The same coaching model produced large practice effects in one cohort and none in the next; dosage, coach-teacher match and school conditions drive results",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Exploring Mechanisms of Effective Teacher Coaching",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Blazar",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 90,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373715579487.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft, M. A., & Hill, H. C. (2020). Developing Ambitious Mathematics Instruction Through Web-Based Coaching: A Randomized Field Trial. American Educational Research Journal 57(6):2378-2414.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0002831220916840",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831220916840",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Web-based math coaching improved observed instructional quality and student perceptions of instruction; achievement effects were not detectable in the trial year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Developing Ambitious Mathematics Instruction Through Web-Based Coaching: A Randomized Field Trial",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 54,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0002831220916840.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Campbell, P. F., & Malkus, N. N. (2011). The Impact of Elementary Mathematics Coaches on Student Achievement. The Elementary School Journal 111(3):430-454.",
     "doi": "10.1086/657654",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1086/657654",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Schools randomized to receive a trained elementary math coach saw student achievement gains in grades 3 to 5 only after the coach's first year, growing in years two and three",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Elementary Mathematics Coaches on Student Achievement",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "The Elementary School Journal",
      "first_author": "Campbell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 250,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_657654.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lynch, K., Hill, H. C., Gonzalez, K. E., & Pollard, C. (2019). Strengthening the Research Base That Informs STEM Instructional Improvement Efforts: A Meta-Analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 41(3):260-293.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373719849044",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373719849044",
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "95 experimental and quasi-experimental STEM PD and curriculum studies: mean effect 0.21 SD; programs combining PD with curriculum materials and those with same-school teacher meetings or summer institutes plus follow-up had larger effects",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Strengthening the Research Base That Informs STEM Instructional Improvement Efforts: A Meta-Analysis",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Lynch",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 160,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373719849044.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Garet, M. S., Heppen, J. B., Walters, K., Parkinson, J., Smith, T. M., Song, M., Garrett, R., Yang, R., & Borman, G. D. (2016). Focusing on Mathematical Knowledge: The Impact of Content-Intensive Teacher Professional Development. NCEE 2016-4010. Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20164010/",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "93 hours of content-intensive grade 4 math PD (summer institute plus follow-up) improved teacher knowledge and some practices but did not improve student achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jacob, R., Hill, H., & Corey, D. (2017). The Impact of a Professional Development Program on Teachers' Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching, Instructional Practice, and Student Achievement. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 10(2):379-407.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2016.1273411",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2016.1273411",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "A widely used math PD program raised teachers' mathematical knowledge for teaching but had no effect on instructional practice or student achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of a Professional Development Program on Teachers' Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching, Instruction, and Student Achievement",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Jacob",
      "title_overlap": 0.91
     },
     "cited_by": 155,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2016_1273411.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.",
     "doi": "10.54300/122.311",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.54300/122.311",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Review of 35 studies with positive links to student outcomes: effective PD is content-focused, uses active learning and modeling, is collaborative and job-embedded, includes coaching and expert support, offers feedback and reflection, and is sustained over time",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effective Teacher Professional Development",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Darling-Hammond",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4273,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_54300_122_311.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of professional development hours delivered as job-embedded coaching cycles (observation, feedback, modeling) versus one-day workshops (PD calendar and coach logs); coach caseload (teachers per full-time coach); number of coaching cycles completed per teacher per year; observed instructional practice scores before and after coaching; student growth of coached teachers versus comparable uncoached teachers; teacher survey ratings of PD usefulness.",
   "standard": "District professional development shall be organized around sustained, content-specific coaching cycles for teachers in their first three years and for any teacher rated below effective, with coach caseloads of no more than 20 teachers, and the district shall report coaching dosage and teacher growth annually.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall employ instructional coaches at a ratio of no more than one coach to 20 teachers served, and every teacher in the first three years of service and every teacher rated below effective on the most recent evaluation shall receive at least eight coaching cycles per year, each consisting of a classroom observation, a written feedback conference within five school days, and a follow-up observation. Coaches shall hold no evaluative role and shall not share observation notes with evaluators. Coaches shall log each cycle in the district professional development system. No more than 25 percent of district-provided professional development hours in any year shall be delivered as single-session workshops without classroom follow-up. The Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning shall report to the Board by September 30 of each year: coaching cycles completed per teacher by school, coach caseloads, the share of professional development hours delivered as coaching, change in observed instructional practice scores of coached teachers, and student growth of coached teachers compared with uncoached teachers. The Board shall review coaching staffing against that report before adopting the following year's budget.",
   "red_flags": [
    "professional development defined as a required number of workshop or in-service hours",
    "coaches assigned administrative or evaluative duties",
    "coach caseloads above 30 teachers or coaches split across many schools",
    "no coaching for new teachers",
    "PD plan listing vendor sessions with no classroom follow-up",
    "no reporting on PD outcomes",
    "coaching offered only to teachers on improvement plans"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "instructional coach",
     "coaching",
     "professional development",
     "professional learning",
     "in-service",
     "staff development",
     "PD",
     "PLC",
     "professional learning community",
     "job-embedded"
    ],
    "regex": "instructional coach|coaching|professional (development|learning)|in[- ]service|staff development|\\bPLCs?\\b|job[- ]embedded"
   },
   "law_notes": "ESSA Section 8101(42) defines professional development as sustained, intensive, collaborative, job-embedded, data-driven and classroom-focused, and excludes one-day or short-term workshops; Title II-A funds must meet that definition. Most states set required in-service hours for license renewal (for example 150 clock hours per five years in Texas, 120 points per five years in Florida) but few specify format. Some states fund coaching directly, such as Mississippi's literacy coaches under the Literacy-Based Promotion Act.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning inventories every current full-time instructional coach and every teacher in the first three years of service or rated below effective on the most recent evaluation, and calculates the current coach-to-teacher ratio by school against the 1 to 20 standard.",
     "The Human Resources director and the Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning draft a coach job description that bars any evaluative role and prohibits sharing observation notes with evaluators, and the Superintendent issues it to all principals and coaches.",
     "The professional development director tags every entry on the current year's PD calendar as a coaching cycle or a single-session workshop and reports to the Superintendent the share of hours in each category against the 25 percent workshop cap.",
     "The technology director adds a coaching cycle log to the district professional development system that records the observation date, the feedback conference date, and the follow-up observation date for each teacher.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning assigns each eligible teacher to a named coach and sets a schedule that delivers eight cycles per teacher by the end of the school year, with each written feedback conference due within five school days of observation."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent fills any coach vacancies needed to bring every school to a caseload of no more than 20 teachers per full-time coach, and brings a staffing request to the Board if the budget does not cover it.",
     "Coaches complete and log at least eight cycles for every teacher in the first three years of service and every teacher rated below effective, and principals verify the logs each quarter.",
     "The professional development director restructures the following year's PD calendar so that no more than 25 percent of district-provided hours are single-session workshops without classroom follow-up, and documents how Title II-A spending meets the ESSA Section 8101(42) definition of professional development.",
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning delivers the first annual report to the Board by September 30 covering cycles completed per teacher by school, coach caseloads, coaching share of PD hours, change in observed practice scores of coached teachers, and student growth of coached versus uncoached teachers."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning reports to the Board by September 30 every year, and the Board reviews coaching staffing against that report before adopting the following year's budget.",
     "The research or assessment office matches coached teachers with comparable uncoached teachers each year and reports the student growth comparison, and surveys teachers on PD usefulness.",
     "Principals and the Human Resources director confirm annually that no coach holds an evaluative role and that observation notes have not been shared with evaluators."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of eligible teachers (first three years of service or rated below effective) receiving at least eight logged coaching cycles per year, coach caseload per full-time coach, share of PD hours delivered as single-session workshops, change in observed instructional practice scores of coached teachers, and student growth of coached teachers versus comparable uncoached teachers.",
    "baseline": "Current coaching cycles per eligible teacher, current coach-to-teacher ratio, current workshop share of PD hours, and current observed practice scores, all drawn from the 90-day inventory and PD calendar audit.",
    "target": "By the end of year one, every eligible teacher has eight logged cycles, no full-time coach serves more than 20 teachers, and single-session workshops are no more than 25 percent of district PD hours; by the end of year two, observed instructional practice scores of coached teachers rise over their pre-coaching scores and student growth of coached teachers is at or above that of comparable uncoached teachers, with both measures improving year over year.",
    "benchmark": "Meta-analysis of 60 causal studies: coaching raises instructional practice by 0.49 SD and student achievement by 0.18 SD (0.34 SD and 0.10 SD in programs over 100 teachers); content-focused workshops without coaching show no achievement effect in IES randomized trials; STEM PD paired with curriculum materials shows 0.21 SD. The entry gives no numeric benchmark for the district-level indicators beyond the 1 to 20 caseload, eight cycles, five school days, and 25 percent workshop cap in the clause.",
    "report": "Annual report from the Assistant Superintendent for Teaching and Learning to the Board by September 30, disaggregated by school, reviewed by the Board before adoption of the following year's budget."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "sustained-coaching-cycles",
     "text": "The policy organizes district professional development around sustained, content-specific coaching cycles for teachers.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "first-three-years-eligibility",
     "text": "The policy provides coaching cycles to teachers in their first three years.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "below-effective-eligibility",
     "text": "The policy provides coaching cycles to any teacher rated below effective.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "caseload-cap-20",
     "text": "The policy caps coach caseloads at no more than 20 teachers.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-dosage-growth-report",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to report coaching dosage and teacher growth annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "teacher-induction-and-mentoring",
   "domain": "New teacher induction and mentoring",
   "category": "staffing-and-instruction",
   "outcomes": [
    "teacher-retention",
    "achievement"
   ],
   "finding": "The one large randomized trial (Glazerman et al. 2010, 1,009 teachers in 17 districts) found that two years of comprehensive induction raised student achievement in the teachers' third year (+4 percentile points reading, +8 math; about 0.11 and 0.20 SD) but one year did not, and neither version changed retention. Nationally representative surveys and a field experiment on structured peer pairing find that first-year mentoring, common planning time and collaboration predict lower attrition and that pairing low-performing teachers with high-performing colleagues raised their students' achievement by about 0.12 SD.",
   "effect": "Two-year comprehensive induction: +0.11 SD reading, +0.20 SD math in year 3 (RCT); retention: null in RCT, lower turnover in survey studies (comprehensive package associated with roughly half the turnover of no support). Structured peer mentoring: +0.12 SD student achievement for low-performing teachers (field experiment).",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "The IES randomized trial found no effect on retention after one, two or three years and no effect on observed classroom practice; its achievement effect appeared only for the two-year treatment and only in year three, and a reanalysis has questioned it. One-year induction produced nothing. Rockoff (2008) found that New York City's mentoring program had limited effects on retention except when the mentor had worked in the same school, though more mentoring hours were associated with higher achievement. The retention findings of Smith and Ingersoll (2004) and Ronfeldt and McQueen (2017) are correlational; teachers who receive more support may be in better-run schools. Induction that consists of an assigned mentor with no release time, no training and no common planning is the common form and has no evidence behind it.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Glazerman, S., Isenberg, E., Dolfin, S., Bleeker, M., Johnson, A., Grider, M., & Jacobus, M. (2010). Impacts of Comprehensive Teacher Induction: Final Results from a Randomized Controlled Study. NCEE 2010-4027. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20104027/",
     "year": 2010,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "No retention or practice effects; two-year comprehensive induction raised student achievement in year 3 by 4 percentile points in reading and 8 in math; one-year induction had no achievement effect",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ingersoll, R. M., & Strong, M. (2011). The Impact of Induction and Mentoring Programs for Beginning Teachers: A Critical Review of the Research. Review of Educational Research 81(2):201-233.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654311403323",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311403323",
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Review of 15 empirical studies: most find induction supports associated with higher retention, better classroom practice and higher student achievement, with the strongest designs showing the weakest effects",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Impact of Induction and Mentoring Programs for Beginning Teachers",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Ingersoll",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1508,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654311403323.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Ronfeldt, M., & McQueen, K. (2017). Does New Teacher Induction Really Improve Retention? Journal of Teacher Education 68(4):394-410.",
     "doi": "10.1177/0022487117702583",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487117702583",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Three SASS/TFS waves and the Beginning Teacher Longitudinal Study: receiving induction supports in the first year predicts less migration and attrition among nationally representative first-year teachers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does New Teacher Induction Really Improve Retention?",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Teacher Education",
      "first_author": "Ronfeldt",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 214,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_0022487117702583.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Smith, T. M., & Ingersoll, R. M. (2004). What Are the Effects of Induction and Mentoring on Beginning Teacher Turnover? American Educational Research Journal 41(3):681-714.",
     "doi": "10.3102/00028312041003681",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312041003681",
     "year": 2004,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "A same-field mentor, common planning time, collaboration and an external network together were associated with turnover less than half that of teachers with no supports",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "What Are the Effects of Induction and Mentoring on Beginning Teacher                Turnover?",
      "year": 2004,
      "journal": "American Educational Research Journal",
      "first_author": "Smith",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1634,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_00028312041003681.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Rockoff, J. E. (2008). Does Mentoring Reduce Turnover and Improve Skills of New Employees? Evidence from Teachers in New York City. NBER Working Paper 13868.",
     "doi": "10.3386/w13868",
     "url": "https://www.nber.org/papers/w13868",
     "year": 2008,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "New York City mentoring: more mentoring hours associated with higher reading and math achievement; retention improved mainly when the mentor had previously worked in the teacher's school",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does Mentoring Reduce Turnover and Improve Skills of New Employees? Evidence from Teachers in New York City",
      "year": 2008,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Rockoff",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 92,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3386_w13868.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Papay, J. P., Taylor, E. S., Tyler, J. H., & Laski, M. E. (2020). Learning Job Skills from Colleagues at Work: Evidence from a Field Experiment Using Teacher Performance Data. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 12(1):359-388.",
     "doi": "10.1257/pol.20170709",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20170709",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Pairing low-performing teachers with high-performing colleagues on a matched skill for one year raised the low performers' student achievement by about 0.12 SD, persisting into the following year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Learning Job Skills from Colleagues at Work: Evidence from a Field Experiment Using Teacher Performance Data",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Papay",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 149,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_pol_20170709.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Helms-Lorenz, M., van de Grift, W., & Maulana, R. (2016). Longitudinal effects of induction on teaching skills and attrition rates of beginning teachers. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 27(2):178-204.",
     "doi": "10.1080/09243453.2015.1035731",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2015.1035731",
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Dutch secondary schools randomized to a three-year induction arrangement: treated beginning teachers showed better teaching skills and lower attrition than controls",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Longitudinal effects of induction on teaching skills and attrition rates of beginning teachers",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "School Effectiveness and School Improvement",
      "first_author": "Helms-Lorenz",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 120,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_09243453_2015_1035731.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Carver-Thomas, D., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher Turnover: Why It Matters and What We Can Do About It. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.",
     "doi": "10.54300/454.278",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.54300/454.278",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "National turnover analysis: about 8 percent of teachers leave annually and replacement costs run roughly 20,000 dollars per urban teacher; induction and mentoring are among the supports associated with lower turnover",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Teacher Turnover: Why It Matters and What We Can Do About It",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Carver-Thomas",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 706,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "One-year, three-year and five-year retention of new hires in the district and in the school (HR records), compared by induction participation and by school poverty; share of first-year and second-year teachers with an assigned trained mentor in the same subject or grade; mentor contact hours logged per new teacher per month; new teacher survey on induction quality; student growth of teachers in years 1 to 3.",
   "standard": "Every teacher in the first two years of service shall receive a trained mentor in the same subject or grade band with scheduled release time, weekly contact in year one, common planning time, and structured observation with feedback; the district shall track retention and mentor contact and report both annually.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall operate a two-year induction program for every teacher new to the profession and a one-year program for every teacher new to the district. Each inductee shall be assigned, before the first student day, a mentor who holds certification in the same subject or grade band, has at least three years of effective ratings, and has completed district mentor training of no fewer than 15 hours. Mentors shall receive a stipend and at least two release periods per month for observation and feedback; principals shall schedule common planning time for each inductee and mentor at least weekly in year one and twice monthly in year two. Mentors shall log contact hours monthly in the district system. The Director of Human Resources shall report to the Board by October 31 of each year the one-year, three-year and five-year retention of new hires by school and by induction participation, mean mentor contact hours per inductee, the share of inductees assigned a same-subject mentor, and results of the annual inductee survey. The Board shall review program funding against that report at its November meeting.",
   "red_flags": [
    "mentor assigned 'when available' or 'as resources permit'",
    "induction limited to a one-day orientation",
    "no release time or stipend for mentors",
    "mentor not required to share subject or grade",
    "induction lasts one year only for teachers new to the profession",
    "no retention reporting",
    "mentor doubles as evaluator"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "induction",
     "mentor",
     "mentoring",
     "new teacher",
     "beginning teacher",
     "probationary teacher",
     "first-year teacher",
     "novice teacher",
     "orientation",
     "teacher retention"
    ],
    "regex": "induction|mentor(ing|s|ship)?\\b|new teachers?|beginning teachers?|novice teachers?|first[- ]year teachers?|probationary teachers?|teacher retention"
   },
   "law_notes": "More than half of states require some form of induction or mentoring for new teachers, often tied to the move from a probationary or initial license to a professional license (for example California's two-year Teacher Induction Program for a clear credential, Connecticut's TEAM program, New York's required mentored experience for professional certification, Texas Education Code 21.458 mentoring program with state funding). ESSA Title II-A funds may be used for induction and mentoring. Requirements rarely specify mentor training, release time or same-subject matching.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Human Resources, with the Superintendent accountable to the Board",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Human Resources inventories every teacher new to the profession and every teacher new to the district and confirms each has an assigned mentor who holds certification in the same subject or grade band and has at least three years of effective ratings.",
     "The Superintendent designates a program coordinator who delivers the district mentor training of no fewer than 15 hours to every assigned mentor before or within the first 30 days of the student year.",
     "Each principal places weekly common planning time for every year-one inductee and mentor pair, and twice-monthly time for every year-two pair, on the master schedule.",
     "The Director of Human Resources opens the monthly mentor contact log in the district system and sets the mentor stipend and the two release periods per month in each mentor's assignment.",
     "The Director of Human Resources pulls baseline one-year, three-year and five-year retention of new hires by school from HR records so the first October 31 report has a comparison point."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The program coordinator reviews the mentor contact log each month and notifies the principal and the Director of Human Resources of any inductee whose mentor has logged no contact in 30 days.",
     "The Director of Human Resources administers the annual inductee survey on induction quality in the spring and tabulates results by school.",
     "The Director of Human Resources reports to the Board by October 31 the retention of new hires by school and by induction participation, mean mentor contact hours per inductee, the share of inductees with a same-subject mentor, and the survey results.",
     "The Board reviews program funding against that report at its November meeting and the Superintendent identifies ESSA Title II-A funds available to sustain stipends and release time."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Human Resources repeats the October 31 report each year with retention compared by school poverty and adds student growth of teachers in years 1 to 3 as data become available.",
     "The Superintendent confirms each August, before the first student day, that every inductee has an assigned trained mentor in the same subject or grade band."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of first-year and second-year teachers assigned a trained same-subject or same-grade-band mentor before the first student day; mean mentor contact hours per inductee per month; one-year, three-year and five-year retention of new hires by school and by induction participation",
    "baseline": "Retention of new hires and mentor assignment rates as recorded in HR records for the school year before the policy takes effect; the entry gives no district baseline, so the first October 31 report establishes it",
    "target": "Within 1 year, every inductee has an assigned trained mentor before the first student day and every year-one mentor pair logs weekly contact; within 3 years, one-year and three-year retention of new hires who completed induction is higher than the pre-policy baseline and no lower than for new hires who did not participate",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric retention benchmark: the randomized trial (Glazerman et al. 2010) found no retention effect, while survey studies associate a comprehensive package with roughly half the turnover of no support; two-year comprehensive induction raised year-3 student achievement by about 0.11 SD reading and 0.20 SD math, and structured peer mentoring raised achievement by about 0.12 SD for low-performing teachers",
    "report": "Director of Human Resources to the Board by October 31 each year, with Board review of program funding at the November meeting"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "two-year-mentor",
     "text": "The policy guarantees every teacher in the first two years of service a trained mentor in the same subject or grade band.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "release-time",
     "text": "The policy provides scheduled release time for mentoring.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "weekly-contact",
     "text": "The policy requires weekly mentor contact during the teacher's first year.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "common-planning",
     "text": "The policy provides common planning time for mentored teachers.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "observation-feedback",
     "text": "The policy requires structured observation with feedback for mentored teachers.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-reporting",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to track retention and mentor contact and report both annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "teacher-evaluation-and-feedback",
   "domain": "Teacher evaluation and feedback",
   "category": "staffing-and-instruction",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "teacher-retention",
    "graduation"
   ],
   "finding": "Well-run evaluation with trained observers and substantive feedback can improve teaching: Cincinnati teachers' students gained about 0.1 SD in math in the years after a rigorous peer evaluation, and Washington DC's IMPACT raised the performance of low-rated teachers by 0.27 SD and pushed the lowest performers out, with their replacements raising achievement. But the 2010s wave of state evaluation reforms, taken as a whole, produced precisely estimated null effects on achievement and attainment, rated fewer than 1 percent of teachers below proficient, and reduced the supply of new teachers.",
   "effect": "Cincinnati peer evaluation: +0.11 SD math in years after evaluation. DC IMPACT: +0.27 SD teacher performance for low-rated teachers facing dismissal threat; turnover of low performers raised student achievement by 0.08 to 0.14 SD. Statewide reforms 2009 to 2017: null, ruling out effects as small as 0.015 SD on achievement and 1 percentage point on graduation or college enrollment.",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Bleiberg et al. (2025) find the 44-state evaluation reform wave had no average effect on achievement, graduation or college enrollment regardless of design rigor. Kraft and Gilmour (2017) found that under the new systems fewer than 1 percent of teachers were rated below proficient in most states, little different from the systems they replaced. The 575 million dollar Gates Intensive Partnerships produced no gains in achievement, graduation or access to effective teachers (Stecher et al. 2018). Kraft et al. (2020) show the reforms reduced the number of new teacher candidates without improving their quality. The IES feedback trial (Garet et al. 2017) improved one observation measure but not reading, and math gains were not sustained in year two. Steinberg and Sartain (2015) found Chicago's Danielson pilot raised reading only in higher-achieving, lower-poverty schools. Phipps and Wiseman (2021) show teachers raise their practice during scheduled observation windows, so observation scores partly measure performance for the observer. Positive effects came from a few high-capacity districts with trained observers, real consequences and compensating pay, not from rubrics alone.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Taylor, E. S., & Tyler, J. H. (2012). The Effect of Evaluation on Teacher Performance. American Economic Review 102(7):3628-3651.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aer.102.7.3628",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.7.3628",
     "year": 2012,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Cincinnati mid-career teachers evaluated under a peer observation system raised student math achievement during the evaluation year and by about 0.11 SD in the years after, consistent with evaluation as skill development",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Effect of Evaluation on Teacher Performance",
      "year": 2012,
      "journal": "American Economic Review",
      "first_author": "Taylor",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 405,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aer_102_7_3628.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dee, T. S., & Wyckoff, J. (2015). Incentives, Selection, and Teacher Performance: Evidence from IMPACT. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 34(2):267-297.",
     "doi": "10.1002/pam.21818",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.21818",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "regression discontinuity",
     "supports": "DC IMPACT: dismissal threats raised voluntary attrition of low-performing teachers by 11 percentage points and raised the performance of those who stayed by 0.27 SD; teachers near the bonus threshold improved by 0.24 SD",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Incentives, Selection, and Teacher Performance: Evidence from IMPACT",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management",
      "first_author": "Dee",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 332,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_pam_21818.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Adnot, M., Dee, T., Katz, V., & Wyckoff, J. (2017). Teacher Turnover, Teacher Quality, and Student Achievement in DCPS. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 39(1):54-76.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373716663646",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373716663646",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Under IMPACT, exits of low-performing teachers were replaced by more effective teachers, raising student achievement in affected grades by roughly 0.08 SD in reading and 0.14 SD in math",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Teacher Turnover, Teacher Quality, and Student Achievement in DCPS",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Adnot",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 226,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373716663646.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft, M. A., & Gilmour, A. F. (2017). Revisiting The Widget Effect: Teacher Evaluation Reforms and the Distribution of Teacher Effectiveness. Educational Researcher 46(5):234-249.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189X17718797",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X17718797",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Across 24 states with reformed systems, fewer than 1 percent of teachers were rated below proficient; principals interviewed privately judged far more teachers to be below proficient and cited time, discomfort and lack of better replacements",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Revisiting\n                    <i>The Widget Effect</i>\n                    : Teacher Evaluation Reforms and the Distribution of Teacher Effectiveness",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 181,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189X17718797.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bleiberg, J., Brunner, E., Harbatkin, E., Kraft, M. A., & Springer, M. G. (2025). Taking Teacher Evaluation to Scale: The Effect of State Reforms on Achievement and Attainment. Journal of Political Economy Microeconomics 3(3):568-610.",
     "doi": "10.1086/732837",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1086/732837",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Staggered adoption of evaluation reforms in 44 states and DC, 2009 to 2017: null effects ruling out gains as small as 0.015 SD on achievement and 1 percentage point on graduation and college enrollment, with no variation by design rigor",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Taking Teacher Evaluation to Scale: The Effect of State Reforms on Achievement and Attainment",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Journal of Political Economy Microeconomics",
      "first_author": "Bleiberg",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 4,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_732837.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Steinberg, M. P., & Sartain, L. (2015). Does Teacher Evaluation Improve School Performance? Experimental Evidence from Chicago's Excellence in Teaching Project. Education Finance and Policy 10(4):535-572.",
     "doi": "10.1162/EDFP_a_00173",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/EDFP_a_00173",
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Schools randomized into a Danielson-based observation and conference pilot raised reading achievement by about 0.1 SD in the first year, concentrated in higher-achieving and lower-poverty schools, with no math effect",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does Teacher Evaluation Improve School Performance? Experimental Evidence from Chicago's Excellence in Teaching Project",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Steinberg",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 112,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_EDFP_a_00173.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Garet, M. S., Wayne, A. J., Brown, S., Rickles, J., Song, M., & Manzeske, D. (2017). The Impact of Providing Performance Feedback to Teachers and Principals: Final Report. NCEE 2018-4001. Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20184001/",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Two years of structured observation feedback, student growth reports and principal feedback in 127 schools improved CLASS-rated practice from the 50th to the 57th percentile, with no reading effect and a math effect that did not persist in year two",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Stecher, B. M., Holtzman, D. J., Garet, M. S., Hamilton, L. S., Engberg, J., Steiner, E. D., Robyn, A., Baird, M. D., Gutierrez, I. A., Peet, E. D., Brodziak de los Reyes, I., Fronberg, K., Weinberger, G., Hunter, G. P., & Chambers, J. (2018). Improving Teaching Effectiveness: Final Report. The Intensive Partnerships for Effective Teaching Through 2015-2016. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RR2242",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.7249/RR2242",
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Six-year evaluation of Gates-funded evaluation and human capital reforms in three districts and four charter networks: no improvement in student achievement, graduation or low-income students' access to effective teachers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Improving Teaching Effectiveness: Final Report: The Intensive Partnerships for Effective Teaching Through 2015&amp;ndash;2016",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Stecher",
      "title_overlap": 0.92
     },
     "cited_by": 43,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RR2242.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kraft, M. A., Brunner, E. J., Dougherty, S. M., & Schwegman, D. J. (2020). Teacher accountability reforms and the supply and quality of new teachers. Journal of Public Economics 188:104212.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104212",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104212",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "High-stakes evaluation reforms reduced the number of new teacher licenses and education degrees and did not raise the measured quality of entering teachers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Teacher accountability reforms and the supply and quality of new teachers",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Public Economics",
      "first_author": "Kraft",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 81,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cullen, J. B., Koedel, C., & Parsons, E. (2021). The Compositional Effect of Rigorous Teacher Evaluation on Workforce Quality. Education Finance and Policy 16(1):7-41.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00292",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp_a_00292",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Houston's rigorous evaluation modestly raised exits of low-rated teachers; the resulting improvement in workforce quality was small",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Compositional Effect of Rigorous Teacher Evaluation on Workforce Quality",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Cullen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 31,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00292.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Phipps, A. R., & Wiseman, E. A. (2021). Enacting the Rubric: Teacher Improvements in Windows of High-Stakes Observation. Education Finance and Policy 16(2):283-312.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00295",
     "url": "https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp_a_00295",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Teachers' student outcomes improved during scheduled observation windows, indicating that observation scores partly reflect temporary effort and that unannounced observations give a truer picture",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Enacting the Rubric: Teacher Improvements in Windows of High-Stakes\n                    Observation",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Phipps",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 22,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00295.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Distribution of summative ratings by school and by evaluator (share below proficient, share at each level); inter-rater agreement on calibration exercises; number of observations per teacher per year and share unannounced; days from observation to written feedback; share of teachers with a written growth plan tied to the evaluation; retention of teachers by rating level; student growth by rating level (does the rating predict growth); teacher survey on feedback usefulness.",
   "standard": "Evaluation shall rest on multiple trained and calibrated observers, at least two observations per year with at least one unannounced, written feedback within five school days, and a growth plan with coaching for any teacher rated below effective; the district shall publish rating distributions and evaluator calibration results annually and shall not use a single test-based measure as more than one third of a rating.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall maintain a teacher evaluation system under which every teacher is observed at least twice each year, at least once unannounced, by an evaluator who has completed district observer training and passed an annual calibration exercise against master-scored videos; evaluators who fail calibration shall not conduct observations until recertified. Each observation shall be followed by a written feedback conference within five school days. No single measure, including any test-based growth measure, shall account for more than one third of a summative rating. A teacher rated below effective shall receive a written growth plan within 20 school days and at least eight instructional coaching cycles during the following year from a coach who is not the evaluator. The Director of Human Resources shall report to the Board by August 31 of each year: the distribution of summative ratings by school and evaluator, evaluator calibration results, the number of observations per teacher and the share unannounced, median days from observation to feedback, the correlation between ratings and student growth, and retention by rating level. The Board shall review the system's reliability against that report every year and shall commission an external review every five years.",
   "red_flags": [
    "evaluation consisting of a single announced observation per year",
    "no observer training or calibration requirement",
    "no timeline for written feedback",
    "tenured teachers evaluated only every three or more years with no interim feedback",
    "student test scores set at 50 percent or more of the rating",
    "no growth plan or support attached to a low rating",
    "no reporting of rating distributions"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "teacher evaluation",
     "evaluation",
     "appraisal",
     "observation",
     "performance review",
     "summative rating",
     "growth plan",
     "improvement plan",
     "Danielson",
     "value-added",
     "student growth measure",
     "non-renewal"
    ],
    "regex": "teacher (evaluation|appraisal|performance)|evaluat(ion|e) of (teachers|certif|professional staff)|classroom observation|summative rating|growth plan|improvement plan|value[- ]added|student growth (measure|percentile)"
   },
   "law_notes": "Race to the Top (2009) and ESEA flexibility waivers (2011 to 2015) drove 44 states and DC to require evaluations that include student growth; ESSA (2015) removed the federal requirement and many states have since loosened test-score weights (for example New York's 2019 repeal of mandatory state test use, Tennessee and Florida reductions). Most states still set minimum observation counts, rating categories and the link between ratings and tenure or dismissal (for example Texas T-TESS, Tennessee TEAM, Florida Statute 1012.34, Illinois PERA). Collective bargaining agreements often govern observation notice and feedback timelines.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Human Resources, with the Superintendent accountable to the Board",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Director of Human Resources inventories the current evaluation system against the clause, listing observer training status, observation counts, feedback timelines, rating weights, and any collective bargaining terms governing notice and feedback.",
     "The Superintendent names an evaluation lead and selects or builds a master-scored video library for the annual evaluator calibration exercise.",
     "The Director of Human Resources drafts the observer training curriculum and the calibration pass standard, and brings both to the Board for review within 90 days.",
     "The Superintendent confirms with counsel that the one third cap on any single measure and the observation minimums comply with state evaluation law and the current bargaining agreement.",
     "The Director of Human Resources builds the data fields needed for the August 31 report: ratings by school and evaluator, calibration results, observation counts, days to feedback, growth correlation, and retention by rating."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Human Resources trains every evaluator before the first observation window and runs the first calibration exercise; any evaluator who fails is removed from observations until recertified.",
     "Principals complete at least two observations per teacher, at least one unannounced, with a written feedback conference within five school days of each.",
     "The Superintendent assigns a coach who is not the evaluator to every teacher rated below effective, with a written growth plan within 20 school days and at least eight coaching cycles scheduled for the following year.",
     "The Director of Human Resources delivers the first full report to the Board by August 31 and the Board reviews system reliability at a public meeting."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Human Resources recalibrates every evaluator annually and reports rating distributions, calibration results, and observation compliance to the Board by August 31 each year.",
     "The Board reviews the reliability of the system against the annual report every year and commissions an external review every five years.",
     "The Director of Human Resources surveys teachers each year on the usefulness of feedback and reports results alongside retention by rating level."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of teachers who received at least two observations with at least one unannounced, median days from observation to written feedback, share of evaluators passing calibration, share of below-effective teachers with a growth plan within 20 school days, distribution of summative ratings by school and evaluator, and correlation between ratings and student growth",
    "baseline": "The district's current observation counts, feedback timelines, rating distribution, and evaluator calibration status as recorded in the first 90 day inventory; the entry notes that statewide reforms rated fewer than 1 percent of teachers below proficient, so a rating distribution with nearly all teachers at or above proficient signals a system that is not discriminating",
    "target": "Within 1 year every teacher has at least two observations with at least one unannounced, median days to written feedback is five school days or fewer, every evaluator conducting observations has passed the annual calibration exercise, every teacher rated below effective has a written growth plan within 20 school days and eight coaching cycles the following year, and no single measure exceeds one third of any rating; within 3 years ratings show a positive correlation with student growth and the share rated below proficient exceeds the under 1 percent pattern of the statewide reforms",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric target for the district's own outcomes. Evidence benchmarks: Cincinnati peer evaluation was followed by +0.11 SD in math; DC IMPACT raised low-rated teacher performance by 0.27 SD and low-performer turnover raised achievement by 0.08 to 0.14 SD; statewide reforms produced null effects, ruling out effects as small as 0.015 SD on achievement and 1 percentage point on graduation or college enrollment, and rated fewer than 1 percent of teachers below proficient",
    "report": "Annual report from the Director of Human Resources to the Board by August 31, covering ratings by school and evaluator, calibration results, observations per teacher and share unannounced, median days to feedback, rating to growth correlation, and retention by rating level; Board reliability review each year and an external review every five years"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "multiple-trained-observers",
     "text": "The policy requires at least two observations per year by multiple trained and calibrated observers, with at least one unannounced.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "written-feedback-five-days",
     "text": "The policy requires written feedback to the teacher within five school days of an observation.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "growth-plan-coaching",
     "text": "The policy requires a growth plan with coaching for any teacher rated below effective.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "publish-ratings-calibration",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to publish rating distributions and evaluator calibration results annually.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "test-measure-cap",
     "text": "The policy limits any single test-based measure to no more than one third of a teacher's rating.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "ai-in-schools",
   "domain": "Generative AI use by students and staff",
   "category": "technology-and-data",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Design determines the effect. In a field RCT with nearly 1,000 high-school math students, unrestricted GPT-4 access raised practice scores (+48%) but cut unaided exam scores by 17% relative to no access; a version with guardrails that withheld answers removed the harm. A college physics RCT found a purpose-built AI tutor produced about double the learning gain of active-learning classes in less time, and an essay-writing RCT found gains persisted a week later only when students used the model as a tutor rather than to write for them. The K-12 evidence base is still one school, one subject and a few weeks.",
   "effect": "unrestricted chatbot: -17% on unaided exam; guardrailed tutor: harm removed; purpose-built tutor (college): about 2x learning gain; effects persist only for tutor-style use",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Only one K-12 RCT exists (Bastani et al., one Turkish high school, four sessions covering 15% of the curriculum), and the positive tutor results come from Harvard undergraduates and Middlebury undergraduates, not children. The most-cited 2025 meta-analysis reporting large positive effects of ChatGPT on learning was retracted in April 2026, so there is no reliable pooled estimate. Lehmann, Cornelius and Sting (working paper) find harm concentrated in answer-generation use and no gain from explanation use, a pattern consistent with the RCTs but not peer reviewed. Detection tools are unreliable and produce false accusations; student-facing products carry data-privacy and age-limit (13+) constraints; teacher-facing uses (lesson planning, feedback) have essentially no outcome research. Policies that ban AI outright push use off campus where no guardrails exist, while policies that mandate adoption buy unproven products.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Bastani H, Bastani O, Sungu A, Ge H, Kabakci O, Mariman R (2025). Generative AI without guardrails can harm learning: Evidence from high school mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122(26):e2422633122.",
     "doi": "10.1073/pnas.2422633122",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Unrestricted GPT-4 during practice raised practice grades 48% but cut later unaided exam grades 17%; a guardrailed GPT Tutor raised practice 127% and largely removed the harm",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Generative AI without guardrails can harm learning: Evidence from high school mathematics",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
      "first_author": "Bastani",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 313,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1073_pnas_2422633122.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kestin G, Miller K, Klales A, Milbourne T, Ponti G (2025). AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting. Scientific Reports 15.",
     "doi": "10.1038/s41598-025-97652-6",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "A pedagogically designed AI tutor produced larger learning gains than in-class active learning in less time, with higher engagement, in a 194-student college physics crossover trial",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "Scientific Reports",
      "first_author": "Kestin",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 214,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1038_s41598_025_97652_6.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Contractor Z, Reyes G (2026). Experimental Evidence on the Learning Impact of Generative AI. arXiv:2607.08849 (also NBER / IZA DP 18792).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.08849",
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "AI access raised unaided test scores by about 0.27 SD immediately; the gain persisted a week later only for students who used the model as a tutor and faded for those who had it write for them",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lehmann M, Cornelius PB, Sting FJ (2024). AI Meets the Classroom: When Does ChatGPT Harm Learning? SSRN working paper.",
     "doi": "10.2139/ssrn.4941259",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Learning harm concentrates when students use the model to produce answers rather than explanations (working paper, not peer reviewed)",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "AI Meets the Classroom: When Does ChatGPT Harm Learning?",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Lehmann",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 23,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wang J, Fan W (2026). Retraction Note: The effect of ChatGPT on students' learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking: insights from a meta-analysis. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 13.",
     "doi": "10.1057/s41599-026-07310-z",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "The widely cited 2025 meta-analysis claiming large positive ChatGPT effects was retracted; no reliable pooled estimate currently exists",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Retraction Note: The effect of ChatGPT on students’ learning performance, learning perception, and higher-order thinking: insights from a meta-analysis",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "Humanities and Social Sciences Communications",
      "first_author": "Wang",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 10,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1057_s41599_026_07310_z.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "U.S. Department of Education (2025). Dear Colleague Letter: Use of federal grant funds to support responsible AI integration in education, July 22, 2025.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ed.gov/about/news/press-release/us-department-of-education-issues-guidance-artificial-intelligence-use-schools-proposes-additional-supplemental-priority",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Federal guidance conditions use of grant funds on responsible, educator-led AI use with privacy protections and parent transparency",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03",
     "note": "host returns 403 to scripts; verified in a browser"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Inventory of approved AI tools with the guardrail configuration of each (answer-withholding on or off); share of courses with a written AI-use expectation on the syllabus; unaided assessment results in courses using AI tools versus matched courses; count of academic-integrity cases involving AI and how many were overturned.",
   "standard": "The district shall maintain a published list of approved AI tools, each with a stated instructional purpose, a guardrail configuration that withholds direct answers during practice, a data-privacy review and an age gate, shall require every course to state in writing when and how students may use AI, shall prohibit discipline based solely on detection software, and shall report usage and unaided-assessment results to the board annually.",
   "model_clause": "The Superintendent shall maintain and publish a list of generative AI tools approved for student use and for staff use. No AI tool shall be placed on the list until the Chief Academic Officer and the Director of Technology certify in writing that (a) the tool serves a named instructional purpose, (b) for student practice and homework use the tool is configured to withhold direct answers and to prompt student reasoning, (c) the vendor contract meets the district's student data privacy policy, including no use of student inputs for model training, and (d) the tool is not used by students under the vendor's stated minimum age. Each teacher shall state in the course syllabus, by the tenth instructional day, when and how students may use AI tools for each category of assignment. No student shall be disciplined for AI use on the basis of detection software alone; a finding shall rest on the teacher's review of drafts, process evidence or an oral check. Staff shall not enter personally identifiable student information into any tool that is not on the approved list. The Chief Academic Officer shall report to the Board by October 1 each year the approved-tool list, usage by tool, unaided assessment results in courses using each tool against matched courses, and the number of AI-related integrity cases and their outcomes. The Board shall review this policy annually in light of new evidence.",
   "red_flags": [
    "all use of artificial intelligence by students is prohibited",
    "AI detection scores are sufficient evidence of plagiarism",
    "teachers may adopt any AI tool at their discretion",
    "no minimum age or vendor-terms check for student accounts",
    "student work or data may be used to train or improve vendor models",
    "no requirement that tools withhold answers during practice",
    "no annual review date despite the pace of change"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "artificial intelligence",
     "generative AI",
     "ChatGPT",
     "chatbot",
     "large language model",
     "AI tool",
     "machine learning",
     "AI detection"
    ],
    "regex": "artificial intelligence|generative ai|\\bAI\\b|chat ?gpt|chatbots?|large language models?|\\bLLMs?\\b|ai[- ]detection"
   },
   "law_notes": "Executive Order 14277 (April 23, 2025) on AI education and the July 22, 2025 Department of Education Dear Colleague letter govern use of federal funds; by the end of 2025 roughly 34 state education agencies had issued K-12 AI guidance (counts vary by source), most of it non-binding. COPPA bars most consumer AI accounts for children under 13 without parental consent, and vendor terms often set 13 or 18 as the minimum age. FERPA applies to any student record entered into an AI tool. Several states (for example Tennessee SB 1711, 2024) require districts to adopt an AI use policy.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Chief Academic Officer, with the Director of Technology as co-owner for tool certification",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Chief Academic Officer and the Director of Technology inventory every generative AI tool currently in use by students or staff and record for each whether answer-withholding is on or off, the vendor minimum age, and whether the contract bars training on student inputs.",
     "The Director of Technology drafts the written certification form covering the four conditions in the clause (named instructional purpose, answer-withholding configuration for practice and homework, data-privacy compliance including no training on student inputs, and age gate) and the Superintendent adopts it within 60 days.",
     "The Superintendent publishes the first approved-tool list, limited to tools that pass certification, and notifies staff that personally identifiable student information may not be entered into any tool not on the list.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer issues a syllabus template with an AI-use expectations section by assignment category and instructs principals that every course must include it by the tenth instructional day.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer issues written guidance to principals that no academic-integrity finding may rest on detection software alone and that each finding must cite draft review, process evidence or an oral check."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Principals verify that every course syllabus in their building states when and how students may use AI tools and report the share of compliant courses to the Chief Academic Officer by the end of the first semester.",
     "The Director of Technology pulls usage logs by tool and the Chief Academic Officer pairs each course using an approved tool with a matched course not using it so that unaided assessment results can be compared.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer collects from each principal the count of AI-related academic-integrity cases, the evidence basis for each, and how many were overturned.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer delivers the first annual report to the Board by October 1 covering the approved-tool list, usage by tool, unaided assessment comparisons and integrity-case outcomes."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Chief Academic Officer and the Director of Technology re-certify every tool on the approved list each year and remove any whose guardrail configuration, privacy terms or age gate no longer meet the clause.",
     "The Board reviews the policy annually after the October 1 report in light of new evidence, given that the K-12 evidence base is still one school, one subject and a few weeks."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Unaided assessment results in courses using each approved AI tool versus matched courses, together with the share of approved tools configured to withhold direct answers, the share of courses with a written AI-use expectation on the syllabus, and the number of AI-related integrity cases overturned.",
    "baseline": "First-year inventory of tools in use and their guardrail configuration, first-semester syllabus compliance count, and the first October 1 report's unaided assessment comparison and integrity-case tally.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, every tool on the approved list has answer-withholding on for student practice use, every course states an AI-use expectation by the tenth instructional day, and unaided assessment results in courses using approved tools are no lower than in matched courses, with no integrity finding resting on detection software alone; sustained in years 2 and 3.",
    "benchmark": "The field RCT found unrestricted GPT-4 access cut unaided exam scores by 17 percent relative to no access while a guardrailed version that withheld answers removed the harm, so the district benchmark is no unaided-assessment deficit in courses using approved tools. The entry gives no numeric benchmark for syllabus compliance or integrity-case rates; those targets are directional.",
    "report": "Chief Academic Officer reports to the Board by October 1 each year; the Board records whether the no-deficit condition was met for each tool and whether any tool was removed from the list as a result."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "approved-tools-with-guardrails",
     "text": "The policy requires a published list of approved AI tools, each configured to withhold direct answers during student practice.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "tool-purpose-privacy-age-gate",
     "text": "The policy requires each approved AI tool to have a stated instructional purpose, a data-privacy review and an age gate.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "course-level-ai-use-statement",
     "text": "The policy requires every course to state in writing when and how students may use AI.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "no-discipline-on-detection-alone",
     "text": "The policy prohibits discipline based solely on AI detection software.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-board-report",
     "text": "The policy requires annual reporting of AI usage and unaided-assessment results to the board.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "one-to-one-devices-and-edtech",
   "domain": "One-to-one devices and educational software",
   "category": "technology-and-data",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Giving every student a device does not by itself raise achievement: the large randomized One Laptop per Child trial and the Swedish 1:1 rollout found no effect on test scores, and the Swedish study found losses for children of less-educated parents. Gains appear only where the device carries targeted software (computer-assisted learning, especially in math) and teachers get sustained support; the one positive US district study (Mooresville) found no short-run effect and +0.13 SD in math after several years alongside changed teaching practice.",
   "effect": "access alone: about 0; targeted computer-assisted learning in math: positive; well-supported district program: +0.13 SD math after 4 to 5 years",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "The 2016 meta-analysis (Zheng et al.) reports positive average effects in English, writing, math and science, but it pools only 10 mostly non-randomized studies and the authors attribute gains to programs that supported teachers as well as students. Causal studies disagree on direction: Cristia et al. (Peru RCT, 318 schools) found nothing on math or language; Hall, Lundin and Sibbmark (Sweden) found no average effect and worse math outcomes and less college-preparatory enrollment for students with less-educated parents; Hull and Duch found gains, but neighboring districts without laptops improved at similar rates and the study cannot isolate which component mattered. Escueta et al. find that fully online courses underperform in-person ones. Device programs also carry recurring cost, screen-time and data-privacy trade-offs that the achievement literature does not price.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Zheng B, Warschauer M, Lin CH, Chang C (2016). Learning in One-to-One Laptop Environments: A Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis. Review of Educational Research 86(4):1052-1084.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0034654316628645",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Across 10 studies, 1:1 laptop programs show small positive average effects in English, writing, math and science, with gains tied to programs that supported teachers",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Learning in One-to-One Laptop Environments",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Review of Educational Research",
      "first_author": "Zheng",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 312,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0034654316628645.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hull M, Duch K (2019). One-to-One Technology and Student Outcomes: Evidence From Mooresville's Digital Conversion Initiative. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 41(1):79-97.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0162373718799969",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "A well-supported district 1:1 program had no short-run effect and a +0.13 SD medium-run math effect; the study cannot say which program components mattered",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "One-to-One Technology and Student Outcomes: Evidence From Mooresville’s Digital Conversion Initiative",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Hull",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 28,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0162373718799969.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Escueta M, Nickow AJ, Oreopoulos P, Quan V (2020). Upgrading Education with Technology: Insights from Experimental Research. Journal of Economic Literature 58(4):897-996.",
     "doi": "10.1257/jel.20191507",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Review of RCTs and RD studies: expanding access alone does not improve K-12 grades or test scores; computer-assisted learning, especially in math, does; fully online courses underperform in-person",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Upgrading Education with Technology: Insights from Experimental Research",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Journal of Economic Literature",
      "first_author": "Escueta",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 205,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_jel_20191507.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Cristia J, Ibarraran P, Cueto S, Santiago A, Severin E (2017). Technology and Child Development: Evidence from the One Laptop per Child Program. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 9(3):295-320.",
     "doi": "10.1257/app.20150385",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Randomized 1:1 laptop rollout in 318 Peruvian primary schools raised computer use but had no effect on math or language scores after 15 months",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Technology and Child Development: Evidence from the One Laptop per Child Program",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Applied Economics",
      "first_author": "Cristia",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 132,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_app_20150385.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hall C, Lundin M, Sibbmark K (2021). A laptop for every child? The impact of technology on human capital formation. Labour Economics 69:101957.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101957",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Swedish 1:1 programs had no average effect on test scores or upper-secondary admission, and worsened math and college-preparatory enrollment for students with less-educated parents",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A laptop for every child? The impact of technology on human capital formation",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Labour Economics",
      "first_author": "Hall",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 14,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "For each device program and each licensed software product: an evidence summary on file before purchase; per-product usage data (share of licensed students active weekly, minutes per student) reported each semester; achievement trend by subgroup for the cohorts exposed versus the pre-adoption baseline on state assessments.",
   "standard": "The district shall not purchase or renew a 1:1 device program or instructional software above a set dollar threshold without a written evidence review, a named instructional purpose, a teacher training plan and a usage-and-outcome report to the board each year, and shall retire products whose usage or results do not meet the stated purpose.",
   "model_clause": "Before the district purchases or renews any student device program or any instructional software license with an annual cost above $25,000, the Chief Academic Officer shall present to the Board a written review stating (a) the instructional purpose and the grades and subjects served, (b) the best available evidence of effect on student outcomes, with citations, (c) the teacher training and technical support to be provided, and (d) the usage and outcome measures that will decide renewal. The Director of Technology shall report to the Board by February 1 and August 1 each year, for every licensed product, the share of licensed students active in the prior semester, median minutes of use per active student, and total cost per active student. The Chief Academic Officer shall report by October 1 each year the achievement of exposed cohorts against the pre-adoption baseline, disaggregated by subgroup. Any product with fewer than 50 percent of licensed students active in two consecutive semesters shall not be renewed without a Board vote. Devices shall be configured so that instructional use, not device possession, is the measured outcome.",
   "red_flags": [
    "every student will be issued a device, with no stated instructional purpose or evaluation",
    "software adoptions are approved by the technology department without board or academic review",
    "no usage reporting or renewal criteria",
    "device program funded as a one-time purchase with no refresh or support budget",
    "screen time during the instructional day is unlimited or unmentioned",
    "no data-privacy review tied to each product"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "one-to-one",
     "1:1",
     "chromebook",
     "laptop",
     "ipad",
     "tablet",
     "educational software",
     "learning management",
     "instructional technology",
     "edtech",
     "digital learning",
     "device agreement"
    ],
    "regex": "one[- ]to[- ]one|1:1|chromebooks?|laptops?|ipads?|tablets?|instructional (technology|software)|educational (software|technology)|ed[- ]?tech|digital (learning|device)|device (agreement|program|loan)"
   },
   "law_notes": "ESSA Section 8101(21) defines evidence tiers and federal Title funds used for technology require an evidence basis; E-rate and state device grants carry CIPA filtering obligations; state student-privacy laws (see student-data-privacy) govern each software contract.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Chief Academic Officer, with the Director of Technology responsible for usage and cost reporting",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Chief Academic Officer compiles an inventory of every current student device program and instructional software license with annual cost above $25,000, listing instructional purpose, grades and subjects served, renewal date and the training already provided.",
     "The Director of Technology configures each licensed product and device fleet to log per-student weekly activity and minutes of use so that instructional use, not device possession, can be reported.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer drafts the written evidence review template covering instructional purpose, best available evidence with citations, teacher training and support plan, and the usage and outcome measures that will decide renewal, and the Board adopts it.",
     "The Superintendent sets the pre-adoption state assessment baseline, disaggregated by subgroup, for each cohort already exposed to an existing product so later trend reports have a fixed reference point.",
     "The Director of Technology confirms with district counsel that each software contract meets state student-privacy law and CIPA filtering obligations tied to E-rate and state device grants."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Technology delivers the first usage and cost report to the Board by February 1 and again by August 1, stating for every licensed product the share of licensed students active in the prior semester, median minutes per active student and total cost per active student.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer presents a completed written evidence review to the Board before any purchase or renewal above $25,000, citing ESSA Section 8101(21) evidence tiers where federal Title funds are used.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer delivers the first achievement report by October 1 comparing exposed cohorts against the pre-adoption baseline on state assessments, disaggregated by subgroup.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer flags to the Board any product below 50 percent of licensed students active in a semester and schedules the teacher training and support promised in its evidence review."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Technology reports usage and cost per product to the Board each February 1 and August 1, and any product below 50 percent active in two consecutive semesters goes to a Board vote before renewal.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer reports subgroup achievement trends for exposed cohorts against baseline each October 1 and recommends retirement of products that do not meet their stated purpose.",
     "The Board reviews the $25,000 threshold and the evidence review template every 1 to 3 years and adjusts them as the product inventory changes."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of licensed products above the $25,000 threshold that have a written evidence review on file before purchase or renewal, share of licensed students active weekly per product, and achievement of exposed cohorts versus the pre-adoption baseline by subgroup on state assessments.",
    "baseline": "Current inventory of device programs and software licenses, with per-product usage and pre-adoption state assessment results by subgroup, as compiled in the first 90 days.",
    "target": "Within year one, 100 percent of purchases and renewals above $25,000 have an evidence review on file before the Board vote; every licensed product reaches at least 50 percent of licensed students active each semester or is brought to a Board vote; by the third October 1 report, no exposed subgroup trends below its pre-adoption baseline and math achievement for exposed cohorts is moving upward.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric benchmark for access alone, which showed about zero effect; the only positive district figure is +0.13 SD in math after 4 to 5 years in a well-supported program with changed teaching practice, so that is the outer reference, not a year-one target.",
    "report": "Director of Technology to the Board each February 1 and August 1 on usage and cost per product; Chief Academic Officer to the Board each October 1 on achievement by subgroup against baseline, with both reports posted publicly."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "evidence-review-before-purchase",
     "text": "The policy prohibits purchasing or renewing a 1:1 device program or instructional software above a set dollar threshold without a written evidence review.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "named-instructional-purpose",
     "text": "The policy requires a named instructional purpose for each device program or instructional software purchase or renewal above the threshold.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "teacher-training-plan",
     "text": "The policy requires a teacher training plan for each device program or instructional software purchase or renewal above the threshold.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-usage-outcome-report",
     "text": "The policy requires a usage-and-outcome report to the board each year for each covered device program or instructional software.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "retire-underperforming-products",
     "text": "The policy requires retiring products whose usage or results do not meet the stated instructional purpose.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "phones",
   "domain": "Personal phones during the school day",
   "category": "technology-and-data",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "mental-health",
    "climate",
    "equity-gaps",
    "discipline"
   ],
   "finding": "Banning phone possession during the school day raises test scores modestly, with the gain concentrated among lower-achieving students (England: +0.07 SD overall, about +0.14 SD for the lowest quintile). Norway's middle-school bans cut bullying for both sexes and improved girls' grades, academic-track placement and mental-health care use, with no average effect on boys; the pooled effect across five European studies is small (d = 0.16) and larger for social wellbeing than for achievement.",
   "effect": "+0.07 SD test scores (England), +0.14 SD for low achievers; Norway girls' GPA up and bullying down; pooled d = 0.16; mental-health effects unproven",
   "evidence_tier": "B",
   "counter_evidence": "Sweden found no effect of use bans on achievement (Kessel et al. 2020), and the difference between banning possession and banning use may explain the split. The largest UK study (SMART Schools, 30 schools, 1,227 pupils) found restrictive school policies reduced in-school phone time but were not associated with better wellbeing, sleep, or attainment, because total daily phone use was unchanged; it is cross-sectional and cannot establish causation either way. Early US evidence (NSCH 2016 to 2024, three ban states, synthetic DiD) shows no clear change in screen time or wellbeing but is underpowered. The Dutch national evaluation is school-leader self-report, not outcome data. Bans impose real costs for students with medical or accessibility needs and for families who rely on reachability, so exceptions and a communication path matter.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Beland LP, Murphy R (2016). Ill Communication: Technology, distraction and student performance. Labour Economics 41:61-76.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.labeco.2016.04.004",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Phone bans in English secondary schools raised age-16 exam scores by 0.07 SD, with the gain concentrated among lower-achieving students",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Ill Communication: Technology, distraction &amp; student performance",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Labour Economics",
      "first_author": "Beland",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 236,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Abrahamsson S (2026). Smartphone Bans, Student Outcomes and Mental Health. Journal of Human Resources, 0224-13403R2 (online first).",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.0224-13403r2",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Norwegian middle-school bans: no average effect, but lower bullying for both sexes and better GPA, academic-track placement and fewer psychological care visits for girls, strongest for disadvantaged girls",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Smartphone Bans, Student Outcomes and Mental Health",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Abrahamsson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 30,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_0224_13403r2.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kessel D, Hardardottir HL, Tyrefors B (2020). The impact of banning mobile phones in Swedish secondary schools. Economics of Education Review 77:102009.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.102009",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Null result: bans on phone use in Swedish secondary schools had no detectable effect on achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The impact of banning mobile phones in Swedish secondary schools",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Kessel",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 60,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bottger T, Zierer K (2024). To Ban or Not to Ban? A Rapid Review on the Impact of Smartphone Bans in Schools on Social Well-Being and Academic Performance. Education Sciences 14(8):906.",
     "doi": "10.3390/educsci14080906",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Pooled effect of school phone bans across five quantitative studies is small (d = 0.16) and larger for social wellbeing than for achievement",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "To Ban or Not to Ban? A Rapid Review on the Impact of Smartphone Bans in Schools on Social Well-Being and Academic Performance",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "Education Sciences",
      "first_author": "Böttger",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 60,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3390_educsci14080906.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Goodyear VA, Randhawa A, Adab P, et al. (2025). School phone policies and their association with mental wellbeing, phone use, and social media use (SMART Schools): a cross-sectional observational study. The Lancet Regional Health - Europe, 101211.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.lanepe.2025.101211",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Restrictive school policies cut in-school phone time by 0.67 h but were not associated with better wellbeing, sleep or attainment, because overall daily use was unchanged",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School phone policies and their association with mental wellbeing, phone use, and social media use (SMART Schools): a cross-sectional observational study",
      "year": 2025,
      "journal": "The Lancet Regional Health - Europe",
      "first_author": "Goodyear",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 71,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1016_j_lanepe_2025_101211.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Carrion Braakman I, Krepel A, Stronkhorst E, Klein T, de Roode J, van de Vrie M, Dirix L (2025). Monitoring landelijke afspraak mobiele telefoons en andere devices in de klas: Eindrapport, eenmeting. Kohnstamm Instituut Rapport 1147 / Oberon, for the Dutch Ministry of Education.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://zoek.officielebekendmakingen.nl/blg-1206825.pdf",
     "year": 2025,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "After the Dutch national no-phones-in-class agreement, 75% of 317 secondary schools reported better concentration, 59% a better social climate and 28% better achievement (self-report)",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Pawlowski CS, Nielsen JV, Schmidt T (2021). A Ban on Smartphone Usage during Recess Increased Children's Physical Activity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(4):1907.",
     "doi": "10.3390/ijerph18041907",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "A four-week recess phone ban in six Danish schools (grades 4 to 7) raised the frequency of physical activity (OR 1.37), while vigorous activity fell",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A Ban on Smartphone Usage during Recess Increased Children’s Physical Activity",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health",
      "first_author": "Pawlowski",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 12,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3390_ijerph18041907.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Saffer H (2026). Youth Mental Health and School Smartphone Bans: Early Evidence. NBER Working Paper 35181.",
     "doi": "10.3386/w35181",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2026,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Early US state bans show no clear reduction in screen time or improvement in wellbeing; the author calls the estimates preliminary and underpowered",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Youth Mental Health and School Smartphone Bans: Early Evidence",
      "year": 2026,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Saffer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 1,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3386_w35181.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of classrooms observed with phones stored (walkthrough sample each semester); device-violation referrals per 100 students; student survey item on in-class distraction; achievement trend for the lowest-achieving quartile versus the district average (state assessment).",
   "standard": "Students shall keep personal phones and smartwatches powered off and stored away from their person from the first bell to the last bell, with written exceptions limited to documented medical, IEP or Section 504 needs and teacher-directed instructional use, and the district shall report compliance and referral data to the board annually.",
   "model_clause": "Personal electronic devices, including phones, smartwatches and earbuds, shall be powered off and stored in a location designated by the principal, away from the student, from the start of the first scheduled period through the end of the last scheduled period, including passing time and lunch. Exceptions shall be granted only (a) where required by a student's IEP, Section 504 plan or a written medical order on file with the school nurse, or (b) for a specific lesson at the written direction of the teacher. Each school shall provide a telephone through which a parent or guardian can reach a student during the day. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 1 each year the number of device violations by school and grade, the number of exemptions on file, and the results of a fall classroom walkthrough sample. Violations shall be handled under the progressive discipline matrix and shall not result in exclusion from instruction for a first or second offense.",
   "red_flags": [
    "phones may be used during passing time, lunch or free periods",
    "use is at the discretion of each teacher",
    "a student may keep the phone on silent in a pocket or backpack",
    "confiscated devices will be returned only to a parent, with no stated timeline",
    "suspension for a first device violation",
    "no exception language for IEP, 504 or medical needs",
    "no way stated for a parent to reach a student during the day"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "cell phone",
     "cellphone",
     "mobile phone",
     "smartphone",
     "personal electronic device",
     "smartwatch",
     "earbuds",
     "bell to bell",
     "phone-free"
    ],
    "regex": "cell(ular)? ?phones?|smart ?phones?|mobile (phones?|devices?)|personal (electronic|communication) devices?|smart ?watch|ear ?buds|bell[- ]to[- ]bell"
   },
   "law_notes": "As of August 2025 about 35 US states had laws or state board rules restricting student phone use, and roughly 18 states plus DC required bell-to-bell restrictions (several, such as Georgia and Florida, only through grade 8); counts move each session, so check the state statute. Federal law (IDEA, Section 504, ADA) requires exceptions for devices that are part of a documented accommodation, for example glucose monitors paired to a phone.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Student Services as day-to-day lead and each building principal responsible for site implementation.",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent confirms with district counsel whether the state statute or state board rule requires bell-to-bell restriction and at which grades, and reports the result to the Board within 30 days.",
     "Each principal designates the storage location for phones, smartwatches and earbuds, installs or identifies the parent-access telephone in the main office, and posts the procedure in the student handbook within 60 days.",
     "The Director of Student Services, working with the special education director and school nurses, inventories every IEP, Section 504 plan and medical order that involves a device, such as a phone-paired glucose monitor, and places a written exemption on file for each within 60 days.",
     "The Superintendent sends a plain-language notice to every family and holds at least one staff training per building on the storage procedure and the progressive discipline matrix before the policy takes effect, no later than 90 days after adoption.",
     "The Director of Research or Assessment adds a device-violation code to the student information system so referrals can be counted by school and grade from the first day of enforcement."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Student Services conducts the fall classroom walkthrough sample at every school and records the share of classrooms observed with phones stored.",
     "The Director of Research or Assessment adds an in-class distraction item to the annual student survey and reports the first result alongside device-violation referrals per 100 students.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first annual report to the Board by October 1 covering violations by school and grade, exemptions on file, and walkthrough results, and flags any school where first or second offenses resulted in exclusion from instruction.",
     "The Director of Research or Assessment establishes the baseline state assessment trend for the lowest-achieving quartile versus the district average using the most recent pre-policy year."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 1 each year on violations, exemptions, walkthrough results, the student distraction survey item, and the lowest-quartile achievement trend.",
     "District counsel reviews the state statute each legislative session and advises the Board within 30 days of any change that affects the grades or hours covered.",
     "The Director of Student Services conducts a walkthrough sample each semester and reviews exemption files with the special education director and school nurses at the start of each school year."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of classrooms observed with phones stored in the semester walkthrough sample; device-violation referrals per 100 students by school and grade; student survey item on in-class distraction; and the state assessment trend for the lowest-achieving quartile compared with the district average.",
    "baseline": "The first semester walkthrough sample, the first full semester of referral counts, the first administration of the distraction survey item, and the most recent pre-policy state assessment results for the lowest-achieving quartile and the district average.",
    "target": "Within 1 year, the share of classrooms with phones stored rises and device-violation referrals per 100 students fall from the first semester to the second; within 1 to 3 years, the student distraction item improves and the lowest-achieving quartile's state assessment trend closes toward the district average rather than widening, with no first or second offense resulting in exclusion from instruction in any year.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives research effects, not operational targets: England's ban raised test scores about +0.07 SD overall and about +0.14 SD for the lowest quintile, Norway's bans cut bullying and raised girls' grades, and the pooled effect across five European studies is d = 0.16, larger for social wellbeing than achievement (evidence tier B). No numeric benchmark exists for walkthrough compliance, referral rates or the survey item, so the target is directional. Mental-health effects are unproven and should not be claimed.",
    "report": "The Superintendent presents the annual report to the Board by October 1 each year, disaggregated by school and grade, and the Board reviews the lowest-quartile achievement trend at the same meeting once state assessment results are available."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "phones-off-and-stored-all-day",
     "text": "The policy requires students to keep personal phones powered off and stored away from their person from the first bell to the last bell.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "smartwatches-covered",
     "text": "The policy applies the same powered-off and stored-away requirement to smartwatches.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "written-exceptions-medical-iep-504",
     "text": "The policy allows written exceptions for documented medical, IEP or Section 504 needs.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "teacher-directed-instructional-use",
     "text": "The policy allows teacher-directed instructional use as an exception.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "exceptions-limited-to-listed",
     "text": "The policy limits exceptions to those documented needs and teacher-directed instructional use and no others.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "annual-board-report",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to report compliance and referral data to the board annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "student-data-privacy",
   "domain": "Student data privacy and vendor contracts",
   "category": "technology-and-data",
   "outcomes": [
    "safety",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Audits find that most school-assigned apps send student data to third parties (Internet Safety Labs: 96% of apps used in a sample of 663 US schools; Human Rights Watch: 146 of 164 government-endorsed products worldwide, 89%, engaged in practices that risked children's rights), and breaches are frequent and large (99 K-12 breaches reported to the GAO sample 2016 to 2020; the December 2024 PowerSchool breach reached tens of millions of student records). There is no outcome research showing that any particular policy reduces harm; the standard rests on federal and state law and professional consensus.",
   "effect": "not measurable as a student outcome; harm prevention standard (96% of school apps share data with third parties absent controls)",
   "evidence_tier": "D",
   "counter_evidence": "No study links district privacy policy strength to measured student harm or benefit, and the audit figures count data flows, not demonstrated injury. Strict contracting raises procurement cost and can delay useful tools; blanket bans on consumer tools push use to personal accounts that the district cannot govern. Over-collection often starts with the district itself (surveillance and monitoring software), not the vendor, and that trade-off between safety monitoring and privacy has no empirical resolution.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Federal Trade Commission (2022). Policy Statement of the Federal Trade Commission on Education Technology and the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act. Adopted May 19, 2022.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.ftc.gov/legal-library/browse/policy-statement-federal-trade-commission-education-technology-childrens-online-privacy-protection",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Edtech vendors, not schools, carry COPPA responsibility; data collected for school use may not be used for marketing, and collection must be limited to what the educational purpose needs",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Human Rights Watch (2022). How Dare They Peep into My Private Life? Children's Rights Violations by Governments that Endorsed Online Learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.hrw.org/report/2022/05/25/how-dare-they-peep-my-private-life/childrens-rights-violations-government",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Of 164 government-endorsed edtech products in 49 countries, 146 (89%) monitored children or collected data in ways that risked or infringed their rights",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Internet Safety Labs (2022). 2022 K-12 EdTech Safety Benchmark: National Findings, Part 1. December 13, 2022.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://internetsafetylabs.org/resources/reports/2022-k12-edtech-safety-benchmark-national-findings-part-1",
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "96% of apps used or recommended by a national sample of 663 US schools sent student data to third parties, 78% of the time to advertising or monetization entities",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "U.S. Government Accountability Office (2020). Data Security: Recent K-12 Data Breaches Show That Students Are Vulnerable to Harm. GAO-20-644.",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-20-644",
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "99 reported K-12 breaches from July 2016 to May 2020 exposed thousands of students' records, and affected counts were often unavailable, so totals are understated",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Sallay D, Future of Privacy Forum (2023). Written testimony on Massachusetts H.532 (student data privacy).",
     "doi": null,
     "url": "https://fpf.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/MA-Testimony-H.532.pdf",
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "Since 2013, 125 state student privacy laws have passed in 42 states, most modeled on California's SOPIPA ban on selling student data or targeting ads",
     "status": "VERIFIED-URL",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Share of software products in use with a signed data privacy agreement on file (target 100%); public inventory of products and data elements collected; number of breach notifications and days to notify; annual count of vendor contracts reviewed and terminated; parent data-access requests fulfilled within the statutory window.",
   "standard": "No product that collects student data shall be used until a signed agreement is on file that limits collection to the stated educational purpose, bars sale, advertising and model training, requires deletion on request or at contract end, and sets breach notice within 72 hours, and the district shall publish the product inventory and report compliance to the board annually.",
   "model_clause": "No employee shall use, or direct students to use, any application, website or service that collects personally identifiable student information unless the Director of Technology has first placed it on the district's approved-software list. A product shall be approved only after the Director of Technology and the district's designated Privacy Officer confirm a signed data privacy agreement that (a) limits collection to data needed for the stated educational purpose, (b) prohibits sale of data, targeted advertising, profiling and use of student data to train or improve the vendor's products, (c) requires deletion or return of all student data within 60 days of a district request or contract end, (d) requires the vendor to notify the district within 72 hours of a confirmed breach, and (e) names the subcontractors who will receive data. The Director of Technology shall publish the approved-software list, with the data elements each product collects, on the district website and update it within 30 days of any change. The Privacy Officer shall report to the Board by September 30 each year the number of products reviewed, approved and removed, every breach and the date families were notified, and the status of parent requests to inspect or correct records under FERPA. Teachers shall receive privacy training at least once each year; completion shall be reported with the annual report.",
   "red_flags": [
    "teachers may use free online tools at their discretion",
    "no vendor agreement requirement or an agreement limited to FERPA boilerplate",
    "student data may be shared with partners for product improvement",
    "no breach notification timeline",
    "no named privacy officer or responsible role",
    "no inventory of products or data elements",
    "directory information defined broadly with opt-out buried or absent",
    "monitoring software collects off-campus activity with no retention limit"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "student data",
     "data privacy",
     "FERPA",
     "COPPA",
     "PPRA",
     "student records",
     "directory information",
     "vendor agreement",
     "data breach",
     "third-party",
     "education records"
    ],
    "regex": "student (data|records?|information)|data (privacy|security|breach)|\\bFERPA\\b|\\bCOPPA\\b|\\bPPRA\\b|directory information|education(al)? records?|third[- ]part(y|ies)|data (sharing|protection) agreement"
   },
   "law_notes": "FERPA, 20 U.S.C. 1232g and 34 CFR Part 99 (school official exception governs vendor access; annual notice and directory-information opt-out required). COPPA, 15 U.S.C. 6501-6506 and 16 CFR Part 312 (FTC amended rule published 2025; schools may consent on parents' behalf only for educational purposes, not commercial use). PPRA, 20 U.S.C. 1232h (surveys). State laws: 42 states had passed student privacy statutes by 2023, for example California SOPIPA (Bus. and Prof. Code 22584), New York Education Law 2-d and 8 NYCRR Part 121 (vendor data security and privacy plan required), Illinois SOPPA (105 ILCS 85, contract and public posting requirements), Texas SB 820 (cybersecurity framework). Check the state's contract-term requirements; several mandate specific clauses and public posting of agreements.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Director of Technology, with the designated Privacy Officer as co-owner for agreement review and annual reporting",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent designates a Privacy Officer in writing and the Board adopts the model clause within 30 days.",
     "The Director of Technology compiles a complete inventory of every application, website and service in use that collects personally identifiable student information, with the data elements each collects, within 60 days.",
     "The Privacy Officer checks every inventoried product against the five required agreement terms (purpose limit, no sale or advertising or model training, 60-day deletion, 72-hour breach notice, named subcontractors) and flags each as compliant, needs amendment, or no agreement.",
     "The Director of Technology publishes the first approved-software list on the district website within 90 days and tells staff that any product not on the list may not be assigned to students.",
     "The Director of Technology and Privacy Officer send amendment requests to every vendor whose agreement lacks one or more required terms, with a 90-day deadline to sign."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Director of Technology removes from the approved list and blocks any product whose vendor has not signed a compliant agreement by the 90-day deadline.",
     "The Privacy Officer delivers annual privacy training to all teachers and records completion for the annual report.",
     "The Privacy Officer builds a breach log recording each confirmed incident, the date the vendor notified the district, and the date families were notified.",
     "The Privacy Officer delivers the first annual report to the Board by September 30 covering products reviewed, approved and removed, every breach and family notice date, and the status of FERPA inspect-and-correct requests."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Technology updates the public approved-software list within 30 days of any addition, removal or change in data elements collected.",
     "The Privacy Officer reports to the Board each September 30 and reviews every agreement at renewal against the five required terms and any new state contract requirements.",
     "The Privacy Officer confirms each year that all teachers completed privacy training and reports completion with the annual report."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Share of software products in use that collect student PII with a signed data privacy agreement on file containing all five required terms, plus days from confirmed breach to family notification and share of FERPA parent requests fulfilled within the statutory window",
    "baseline": "Taken from the inventory completed in the first 60 days: number of products in use, and the share with a fully compliant agreement on file; audits cited in the finding suggest that absent controls most products (96% in the Internet Safety Labs sample) share data with third parties",
    "target": "100% of products in use have a compliant signed agreement by the end of year one and at every September 30 report thereafter; every confirmed breach is reported by the vendor within 72 hours; the public list is updated within 30 days of each change; 100% of teachers complete annual training",
    "benchmark": "No outcome research sets a numeric harm-reduction benchmark; the standard rests on FERPA, COPPA, PPRA and state statutes (42 states by 2023, for example New York Education Law 2-d, Illinois SOPPA, California SOPIPA), and the indicator itself sets the 100% compliance target",
    "report": "Privacy Officer presents to the Board by September 30 each year, with the public approved-software list and breach log posted on the district website"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "signed-agreement-before-use",
     "text": "The policy bars use of any product that collects student data until a signed data privacy agreement is on file.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "collection-limited-to-educational-purpos",
     "text": "The policy requires the agreement to limit data collection to the stated educational purpose.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "bars-sale-advertising-model-training",
     "text": "The policy requires the agreement to bar sale of student data, advertising, and model training.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "deletion-on-request-or-contract-end",
     "text": "The policy requires the agreement to require deletion of student data on request or at contract end.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "breach-notice-72-hours",
     "text": "The policy requires the agreement to set breach notice within 72 hours.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "publish-inventory-annual-board-report",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to publish the product inventory and report compliance to the board annually.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "four-day-school-week",
   "domain": "Four-day school week",
   "category": "time-and-schedule",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "attendance",
    "safety",
    "teacher-retention"
   ],
   "finding": "Difference-in-differences studies across Oregon, a multi-state NWEA sample and a RAND study of Idaho, New Mexico and Oklahoma agree that moving to a four-day week lowers achievement growth modestly (spring reading about -0.07 SD and fall-to-spring growth about -0.06 SD in math and reading), with the loss concentrated in non-rural districts and in schedules that cut total instructional time; the saving is small, about 1 to 3 percent of operating spending, and there is no evidence of better attendance.",
   "effect": "Oregon: -0.042 SD math after switching; multi-state: spring reading -0.07 SD, fall-to-spring growth -0.06 SD; RAND: slower achievement growth than matched five-day districts; expenditures -1 to -3 percent; juvenile crime +20 percent in Colorado counties; no attendance gain",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Anderson and Walker (2015) found positive effects on Colorado elementary math and reading, and Morton (2022) found no detectable effect on Oklahoma high school ACT scores or attendance and 31 to 39 percent fewer fighting and bullying incidents (partly mechanical, since students are in school less). Thompson and Ward (2022) show the harm is near zero in four-day districts that keep total hours at five-day levels, so the schedule itself is less the problem than lost time. Families, students and teachers report high satisfaction, and RAND found qualitative support for teacher recruitment in rural districts. Districts under severe revenue loss may use the small savings to protect instructional spending.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Thompson PN (2021). Is four less than five? Effects of four-day school weeks on student achievement in Oregon. Journal of Public Economics 193:104308.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104308",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Oregon student-level panel 2007-2015: math achievement fell about 0.04 SD after switching, driven by 3 to 4 fewer hours in school per week",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Is four less than five? Effects of four-day school weeks on student achievement in Oregon",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Journal of Public Economics",
      "first_author": "Thompson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 29,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Morton E, Thompson PN, Kuhfeld M (2024). A multi-state, student-level analysis of the effects of the four-day school week on student achievement and growth. Economics of Education Review 100:102524.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2024.102524",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "NWEA MAP Growth across multiple states: spring reading -0.07 SD and fall-to-spring growth -0.06 SD in math and reading, larger in non-rural schools",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A multi-state, student-level analysis of the effects of the four-day school week on student achievement and growth",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Morton",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 9,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Thompson PN, Ward J (2022). Only a matter of time? The role of time in school on four-day school week achievement impacts. Economics of Education Review 86:102198.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102198",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Twelve-state analysis: negative achievement effects concentrated where four-day schedules reduce total time in school; near zero where hours are maintained",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Only a matter of time? The role of time in school on four-day school week achievement impacts",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Thompson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 19,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kilburn MR, Phillips A, Gomez CJ, Mariano LT, Doss CJ, Troxel WM, Morton E, Estes K (2021). Does four equal five? Implementation and outcomes of the four-day school week. RAND Corporation, RR-A373-1.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RR-A373-1",
     "url": "https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA373-1.html",
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Idaho, New Mexico, Oklahoma: achievement grew more slowly after adoption than in matched five-day districts; small cost savings; no attendance gain; high stakeholder satisfaction",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does Four Equal Five? Implementation and Outcomes of the Four-Day School Week",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 9,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RR_A373_1.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Morton E (2022). Effects of 4-day school weeks on older adolescents: Examining impacts of the schedule on academic achievement, attendance, and behavior in high school. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 45(1):52-78.",
     "doi": "10.3102/01623737221097420",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Oklahoma high schools: no detectable effect on ACT scores or attendance; bullying incidents -39 percent and fighting -31 percent per pupil",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of 4-Day School Weeks on Older Adolescents: Examining Impacts of the Schedule on Academic Achievement, Attendance, and Behavior in High School",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis",
      "first_author": "Morton",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 11,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_01623737221097420.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Anderson DM, Walker MB (2015). Does shortening the school week impact student performance? Evidence from the four-day school week. Education Finance and Policy 10(3):314-349.",
     "doi": "10.1162/EDFP_a_00165",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2015,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: Colorado elementary schools showed positive and often significant math and reading effects after adopting four-day weeks",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does Shortening the School Week Impact Student Performance? Evidence from the Four-Day School Week",
      "year": 2015,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Anderson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 107,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_EDFP_a_00165.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Fischer S, Argyle D (2018). Juvenile crime and the four-day school week. Economics of Education Review 64:31-39.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.03.010",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Colorado rural counties 1997-2014: four-day weeks raised juvenile offenses about 20 percent, mostly property crime",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Juvenile crime and the four-day school week",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Fischer",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 45,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Thompson PN (2021). Does a day lost equal dollars saved? The effects of four-day school weeks on school district expenditures. National Tax Journal 74(1):147-183.",
     "doi": "10.1086/712916",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2021,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "National panel 1999-2017: operating expenditure savings are small (working-paper estimate about 3 percent per pupil) and come mainly from reduced support services",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Does a Day Lost Equal Dollars Saved? The Effects of Four-Day School Weeks on School District Expenditures",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "National Tax Journal",
      "first_author": "Thompson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 19,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1086_712916.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Thompson PN, Gunter KB, Schuna JM Jr, Tomayko EJ (2021). Are all four-day school weeks created equal? A national assessment of four-day school week policy adoption and implementation. Education Finance and Policy 16(4):558-583.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp_a_00316",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "cross-sectional",
     "supports": "Census of over 1,600 four-day schools in 24 states: days average 148 per year and total time in school is below five-day districts despite longer days",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Are All Four-Day School Weeks Created Equal? A National Assessment of Four-Day School Week Policy Adoption and Implementation",
      "year": 2021,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Thompson",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 27,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_a_00316.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Total annual instructional hours per grade span compared with the district's prior five-day calendar and the state minimum (board-adopted calendar); student achievement growth on state tests and interim assessments in the three years after adoption compared with matched five-day districts; chronic absence rate; documented savings as a share of operating expenditure; fifth-day childcare and meal access for low-income students.",
   "standard": "A district adopts or retains a four-day week only after showing that total instructional hours will equal or exceed its prior five-day calendar, with a published pre-adoption analysis, fifth-day meal and supervision provisions, and a dated outcome review that triggers reconsideration if achievement growth falls.",
   "model_clause": "The Board shall not adopt a four-day instructional week unless the Superintendent has first presented, at a public meeting at least sixty (60) days before the vote, a written analysis showing the total annual instructional hours by grade span under the proposed calendar compared with the current calendar and the state minimum, the projected savings as a percentage of operating expenditure, the plan for meals, supervision and academic support on the non-instructional weekday for students eligible for free or reduced-price meals, and the achievement and attendance measures that will be used to evaluate the change. Any four-day calendar the Board adopts shall provide total instructional hours not less than the district's most recent five-day calendar. The Superintendent shall report to the Board by October 1 of each of the three school years following adoption the district's achievement growth in reading and mathematics on state and interim assessments compared with the prior three years and with comparable five-day districts, the chronic absence rate, disciplinary incidents, and actual savings. If achievement growth is below the prior three-year average for two consecutive years, the Board shall vote on whether to return to a five-day calendar before adopting the next year's calendar.",
   "red_flags": [
    "four-day calendar adopted for cost savings with no instructional-hours comparison",
    "total annual hours set at the state minimum rather than the prior calendar",
    "no provision for meals or supervision on the fifth day",
    "no scheduled outcome review after adoption",
    "calendar policy silent on instructional hours"
   ],
   "silent_is": "acceptable",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "four-day",
     "four day week",
     "4-day",
     "school calendar",
     "instructional days",
     "instructional hours"
    ],
    "regex": "four[- ]day (school )?week|4[- ]day (school )?week|instructional (days|hours|minutes)|school calendar"
   },
   "law_notes": "State calendar law governs. Missouri SB 727 (2024) requires districts in charter counties or cities over 30,000 to win majority voter approval to start or keep a four-day week, with approval lasting ten years, effective 2026-27. Oklahoma SB 441 (2019) limits four-day weeks to districts meeting state performance benchmarks and documenting cost savings, with 1,080 instructional hours required; the State Board granted waivers through 2022. Most four-day states set minimum annual hours rather than days (for example, Texas 75,600 minutes), which is what makes shortened calendars legal.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Chief Financial Officer and Director of Curriculum and Assessment",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent directs the Chief Financial Officer and Director of Curriculum to compute total annual instructional hours by grade span under the current five-day calendar, the proposed four-day calendar and the state minimum, and to project savings as a percentage of operating expenditure.",
     "The Director of Student Services drafts the fifth-day plan for meals, supervision and academic support for students eligible for free or reduced-price meals, with named providers, sites and costs.",
     "The Director of Curriculum and Assessment selects the state and interim assessments, the comparable five-day districts, and the prior three-year baseline that will be used to judge the change.",
     "The Superintendent presents the written analysis at a public Board meeting at least 60 days before any vote and posts it on the district website.",
     "The Board Attorney confirms whether state law requires voter approval, a performance benchmark or minimum annual hours (for example, 1,080 hours in Oklahoma or 75,600 minutes in Texas) before the Board schedules a vote."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Board votes on the calendar only after confirming on the record that total instructional hours are not less than the most recent five-day calendar.",
     "The Director of Student Services opens the fifth-day meal and supervision program on the first non-instructional weekday and the Business Office tracks participation by meal-eligibility status.",
     "The Director of Curriculum and Assessment collects fall and spring interim assessment results and chronic absence counts so the first October 1 report can compare growth with the prior three years and with matched five-day districts.",
     "The Superintendent delivers the first October 1 report to the Board covering achievement growth, chronic absence, disciplinary incidents and actual savings."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent reports to the Board by October 1 in each of the three school years after adoption on achievement growth, chronic absence, disciplinary incidents and actual savings.",
     "If achievement growth falls below the prior three-year average for two consecutive years, the Board Clerk places a vote on returning to a five-day calendar on the agenda before the next year's calendar is adopted."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Achievement growth in reading and mathematics on state and interim assessments compared with the district's prior three-year average and with comparable five-day districts; total annual instructional hours per grade span; chronic absence rate; actual savings as a share of operating expenditure; fifth-day meal and supervision access for low-income students",
    "baseline": "The district's achievement growth, chronic absence rate, instructional hours by grade span and operating expenditure for the three school years before adoption, as documented in the pre-adoption analysis",
    "target": "Total instructional hours in every grade span equal to or greater than the most recent five-day calendar in the adopted calendar; achievement growth in reading and mathematics at or above the prior three-year average in each of the three years after adoption, with no two consecutive years below it; chronic absence rate no higher than the prior three-year average",
    "benchmark": "The research gives effect sizes, not a performance target: four-day weeks lowered spring reading by about -0.07 SD and fall-to-spring growth by about -0.06 SD in math and reading (Oregon math -0.042 SD), saved about 1 to 3 percent of operating spending, and produced no attendance gain, so the policy sets no numeric achievement threshold beyond the district's own prior three-year average",
    "report": "Superintendent's written report to the Board by October 1 in each of the three school years after adoption, presented at a public meeting and posted with the original pre-adoption analysis"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "instructional-hours-not-reduced",
     "text": "The policy allows a four-day week only if total instructional hours equal or exceed the district's prior five-day calendar.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "published-pre-adoption-analysis",
     "text": "The policy requires a published analysis before a four-day week is adopted.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "fifth-day-meals-supervision",
     "text": "The policy requires provisions for meals and supervision on the fifth day.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "dated-outcome-review",
     "text": "The policy requires an outcome review on a stated date after adoption.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "reconsideration-trigger",
     "text": "The policy requires reconsideration of the four-day week if achievement growth falls.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "remote-instruction-days",
   "domain": "Remote instruction days (virtual snow days and planned remote learning)",
   "category": "time-and-schedule",
   "outcomes": [
    "achievement",
    "attendance",
    "equity-gaps"
   ],
   "finding": "Remote instruction delivers less learning than in-person instruction and widens gaps. In 2020 to 2021, districts that stayed in person lost 13 percentage points less in math pass rates than remote districts (Jack et al.), remote instruction was the primary driver of widened gaps by race and poverty (Goldhaber et al.), and the national decline reached 0.20 to 0.27 SD in math (Kuhfeld et al.). Randomized trials of online delivery at West Point (-0.215 SD in grades) and in Chicago algebra credit recovery (lower pass rates) confirm the direction outside the pandemic. A few weather closures do not measurably hurt achievement, so a remote day mainly needs to beat a day off, which it fails to do when attendance collapses.",
   "effect": "remote vs in-person: about -0.2 SD (RCTs and pandemic natural experiments), largest for low-income and Black students; a handful of closure days: about 0",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "No study isolates occasional virtual snow days specifically; the pandemic evidence covers months of remote schooling under crisis conditions and likely overstates the cost of a single day. Goodman (2014) found that a few snow days did not reduce Massachusetts test scores because schools made the time up, while Marcotte and Hemelt (2008) found that about five unscheduled closures before Maryland's spring tests lowered third-grade proficiency rates by nearly 3 percent, so the cost of lost days is real when they are not recovered before assessment. Blended programs that keep in-person contact perform about as well as in-person classes (Escueta et al.). Remote days do protect calendar end dates and staff pay, and for a multi-day emergency closure a well-run remote day beats nothing.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Kuhfeld M, Soland J, Lewis K (2022). Test Score Patterns Across Three COVID-19-Impacted School Years. Educational Researcher 51(7):500-506.",
     "doi": "10.3102/0013189x221109178",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2022,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Fall 2021 math scores were 0.20 to 0.27 SD below 2019 for grades 3 to 8 (reading 0.09 to 0.18 SD), and low-poverty versus high-poverty school gaps grew 0.10 to 0.20 SD, mostly during the remote 2020 to 2021 year",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Test Score Patterns Across Three COVID-19-Impacted School Years",
      "year": 2022,
      "journal": "Educational Researcher",
      "first_author": "Kuhfeld",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 209,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3102_0013189x221109178.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Goldhaber D, Kane TJ, McEachin A, Morton E, Patterson T, Staiger DO (2023). The Educational Consequences of Remote and Hybrid Instruction during the Pandemic. American Economic Review: Insights 5(3):377-392.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aeri.20220180",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Across 2.1 million students in 49 states, remote instruction was the primary driver of widened achievement gaps; math gaps did not widen where schools stayed in person",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Educational Consequences of Remote and Hybrid Instruction during the Pandemic",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "American Economic Review: Insights",
      "first_author": "Goldhaber",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 49,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aeri_20220180.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Jack R, Halloran C, Okun J, Oster E (2023). Pandemic Schooling Mode and Student Test Scores: Evidence from US School Districts. American Economic Review: Insights 5(2):173-190.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aeri.20210748",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2023,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Within commuting zones, fully in-person districts had 13.4 pp smaller math and 8.3 pp smaller ELA pass-rate declines than remote or hybrid districts, with larger in-person value where more students are Black",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Pandemic Schooling Mode and Student Test Scores: Evidence from US School Districts",
      "year": 2023,
      "journal": "American Economic Review: Insights",
      "first_author": "Jack",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 104,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aeri_20210748.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Kofoed MS, Gebhart L, Gilmore D, Moschitto R (2024). Zooming to Class? Experimental Evidence on College Students' Online Learning during COVID-19. American Economic Review: Insights 6(3):324-340.",
     "doi": "10.1257/aeri.20230077",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2024,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "551 West Point students randomized to online or in-person economics: online grades fell 0.215 SD, most for academically at-risk students, with worse concentration and connection",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Zooming to Class? Experimental Evidence on College Students’ Online Learning during COVID-19",
      "year": 2024,
      "journal": "American Economic Review: Insights",
      "first_author": "Kofoed",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 127,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_aeri_20230077.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Heppen JB, Sorensen N, Allensworth E, Walters K, Rickles J, Taylor SS, Michelman V (2017). The Struggle to Pass Algebra: Online vs. Face-to-Face Credit Recovery for At-Risk Urban Students. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 10(2):272-296.",
     "doi": "10.1080/19345747.2016.1168500",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "RCT",
     "supports": "Chicago students randomized to online algebra credit recovery had lower pass rates and lower algebra scores than those in face-to-face sections",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "The Struggle to Pass Algebra: Online vs. Face-to-Face Credit Recovery for At-Risk Urban Students",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness",
      "first_author": "Heppen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 101,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1080_19345747_2016_1168500.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Marcotte DE, Hemelt SW (2008). Unscheduled School Closings and Student Performance. Education Finance and Policy 3(3):316-338.",
     "doi": "10.1162/edfp.2008.3.3.316",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2008,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "In Maryland, a year with about five unscheduled snow closures before the spring test lowered the share of third graders proficient in reading and math by nearly 3 percent",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Unscheduled School Closings and Student Performance",
      "year": 2008,
      "journal": "Education Finance and Policy",
      "first_author": "Marcotte",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 223,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1162_edfp_2008_3_3_316.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Goodman J (2014). Flaking Out: Student Absences and Snow Days as Disruptions of Instructional Time. NBER Working Paper 20221.",
     "doi": "10.3386/w20221",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "In Massachusetts, school-wide snow closures did not lower test scores (the time was made up), but individual absences on bad-weather days did; coordinated closure beats partial attendance",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Flaking Out: Student Absences and Snow Days as Disruptions of Instructional Time",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Goodman",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 180,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3386_w20221.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "Number of remote instruction days used per year and the reason for each; student attendance on remote days (share logging into synchronous instruction) by school and by free-and-reduced-lunch status, compared with the in-person attendance rate; share of households confirmed to have a device and connectivity; minutes of live instruction delivered per remote day.",
   "standard": "The district shall use remote instruction days only for weather or emergency closures, shall cap them at five per year counted toward instructional time, shall require live synchronous instruction and attendance taking on every remote day, shall confirm device and internet access for every student in advance, and shall make up any closure beyond the cap with in-person days.",
   "model_clause": "Remote instruction days shall be used only when the Superintendent closes school buildings for weather or emergency and shall not be scheduled for staff development, conferences or other planned purposes. No more than five remote instruction days per school year shall count toward the state minimum of instructional days or hours; closures beyond five shall be made up with in-person days added to the calendar. On each remote instruction day every teacher shall deliver at least two hours of live synchronous instruction for secondary students and at least one hour for elementary students, shall take attendance in the student information system, and shall contact the family of any student absent from the synchronous session that day. By October 1 each year the Director of Technology shall certify to the Board that every enrolled student has a district device and a working internet connection at home, or has been issued a hotspot, and shall report the number of students for whom this could not be confirmed. Students with IEPs shall receive their services on remote days or receive compensatory services within 10 school days. The Superintendent shall report to the Board within 30 days of each remote instruction day the attendance rate for that day by school and by free-and-reduced-lunch status, compared with the prior month's in-person rate, and shall present an annual summary by June 30.",
   "red_flags": [
    "remote learning days may be used at the superintendent's discretion for any purpose",
    "no cap on the number of remote days",
    "asynchronous assignments posted online constitute a remote instruction day",
    "attendance is not taken or is counted as present if the student submits work within a week",
    "no device or connectivity confirmation",
    "no make-up provision when the cap is exceeded",
    "special education services are suspended on remote days"
   ],
   "silent_is": "neutral",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "remote learning",
     "virtual learning day",
     "e-learning day",
     "snow day",
     "inclement weather",
     "emergency closure",
     "distance learning",
     "asynchronous",
     "synchronous",
     "alternative instruction"
    ],
    "regex": "remote (learning|instruction)|virtual (learning|instruction|snow) days?|e[- ]?learning days?|snow days?|inclement weather|emergency (closure|closing)|distance learning|a?synchronous|alternative (methods? of )?instruction"
   },
   "law_notes": "State law controls whether remote days count toward minimum instructional time: as of 2025 to 2026, Arkansas, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey and DC do not count them (with narrow emergency exceptions), about 23 states cap them (typically 3 to 5 days, up to 10 in Virginia and Kentucky), and about 23 states leave it to district discretion. Indiana limits asynchronous days to three. Some states, such as New York, set device, connectivity and special-education service requirements for remote days. Confirm the current state rule before adopting a cap.",
   "stakes": 2,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Technology responsible for the device and connectivity certification",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent confirms the current state rule on whether remote days count toward minimum instructional time and whether the state caps them, and reports the rule to the Board before the policy is adopted.",
     "The Director of Technology surveys every enrolled household for a district device and a working home internet connection, issues hotspots where needed, and certifies the results to the Board by October 1 with the count of students who could not be confirmed.",
     "The Superintendent issues a written remote-day procedure to principals requiring at least two hours of live synchronous instruction for secondary students and one hour for elementary students, attendance entry in the student information system, and same-day family contact for any student absent from the synchronous session.",
     "The Director of Special Education sets the process for delivering IEP services on remote days and for scheduling compensatory services within 10 school days when services cannot be delivered.",
     "The Superintendent removes any remote days scheduled for staff development, conferences or other planned purposes from the current calendar."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "Within 30 days of each remote instruction day the Superintendent reports to the Board the attendance rate for that day by school and by free-and-reduced-lunch status, compared with the prior month's in-person rate, along with minutes of live instruction delivered.",
     "The Superintendent tracks the count of remote days used and their reasons and, once closures exceed five, adds in-person make-up days to the calendar and brings the revised calendar to the Board.",
     "The Superintendent presents an annual summary by June 30 covering remote days used, reasons, attendance gaps, device confirmation, and IEP service delivery."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Director of Technology repeats the device and connectivity certification to the Board by October 1 every year.",
     "The Board reviews the annual June 30 summary and the current state rule on remote-day caps each year and revises the cap if the law changes."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Student attendance on remote instruction days (share logging into synchronous instruction) by school and by free-and-reduced-lunch status, compared with the prior month's in-person attendance rate; number of remote days used per year and reason for each; share of households confirmed to have a device and connectivity; minutes of live instruction per remote day.",
    "baseline": "The attendance rate on the first remote instruction day after adoption, by school and by free-and-reduced-lunch status, alongside the prior month's in-person rate and the October 1 device and connectivity certification count.",
    "target": "Within 1 year: no remote days used for planned purposes, no more than five remote days counted toward instructional time, every remote day delivering at least two hours of live instruction for secondary and one hour for elementary students, and the gap between remote-day attendance and the prior month's in-person rate narrowing each year, with the free-and-reduced-lunch gap no wider than the overall gap.",
    "benchmark": "The entry gives no numeric attendance benchmark for remote days. It supports a cap of five days (about 23 states cap remote days, typically at 3 to 5), the two-hour and one-hour live instruction minimums, and the 10 school day compensatory services window. The research shows remote instruction at about -0.2 SD versus in-person, so the goal is to keep remote days rare and to beat a day off, not to match in-person learning.",
    "report": "Superintendent report to the Board within 30 days of each remote instruction day, Director of Technology certification by October 1, and an annual summary by June 30."
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "cap-five-days",
     "text": "The policy caps remote instruction days counted toward instructional time at five per year.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "weather-emergency-only",
     "text": "The policy limits remote instruction days to weather or emergency closures.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "live-synchronous-instruction",
     "text": "The policy requires live synchronous instruction on every remote instruction day.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "attendance-every-remote-day",
     "text": "The policy requires attendance to be taken on every remote instruction day.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "device-internet-confirmed",
     "text": "The policy requires the district to confirm device and internet access for every student before a remote instruction day.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "make-up-in-person",
     "text": "The policy requires any closure beyond the cap to be made up with in-person days.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  },
  {
   "id": "start-time",
   "domain": "Secondary school start time",
   "category": "time-and-schedule",
   "outcomes": [
    "attendance",
    "achievement",
    "mental-health",
    "safety",
    "physical-health"
   ],
   "finding": "Adolescent circadian timing shifts later, and middle and high schools that start at or after 8:30 a.m. get measurably more sleep from students; a Seattle district-wide delay of nearly an hour produced 34 more minutes of sleep per night, a 4.5 percent rise in median grades and better attendance, and a Florida time-zone natural experiment found each hour of later start relative to sunrise raised adolescent math scores by 0.08 SD. Meta-analyses and a Cochrane review agree on the sleep and attendance effects; achievement effects are positive but smaller and less consistent.",
   "effect": "+34 min sleep per school night (Seattle); grades +4.5 percent; math +0.08 SD and reading +0.06 SD per hour later start (Florida); fewer absences and tardies; achievement gains small or mixed in some district studies",
   "evidence_tier": "A",
   "counter_evidence": "Achievement gains are modest and uneven: Bastian and Fuller (2018) found mixed positive and negative test-score associations across North Carolina high schools even where suspensions fell and grades rose, and the Cochrane review (2017) rated the underlying studies as low quality. Costs are real: later secondary starts usually force bus-tier changes, and RAND (2017) modeled roughly 150 dollars per student per year in added transportation cost plus a one-time facilities cost, with net benefits that turn positive only after several years in high-cost scenarios. Moving secondary schools later can push elementary schools earlier, and after-school activities and student work hours are compressed. Florida enacted a 2023 mandate and then, in 2025, replaced it with a report-and-consider requirement after districts objected to bus and staffing costs.",
   "citations": [
    {
     "ref": "Adolescent Sleep Working Group, Committee on Adolescence, Council on School Health, American Academy of Pediatrics (2014). School start times for adolescents. Pediatrics 134(3):642-649.",
     "doi": "10.1542/peds.2014-1697",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2014,
     "design": "standard",
     "supports": "AAP policy statement recommending middle and high schools start no earlier than 8:30 a.m.",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Start Times for Adolescents",
      "year": 2014,
      "journal": "Pediatrics",
      "first_author": null,
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 468,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1542_peds_2014_1697.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Dunster GP, de la Iglesia L, Ben-Hamo M, Nave C, Fleischer JG, Panda S, de la Iglesia HO (2018). Sleepmore in Seattle: Later school start times are associated with more sleep and better performance in high school students. Science Advances 4(12):eaau6200.",
     "doi": "10.1126/sciadv.aau6200",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "District-wide 55 minute delay: median sleep +34 min, median grades +4.5 percent, attendance improved, measured with wrist actigraphy",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Sleepmore in Seattle: Later school start times are associated with more sleep and better performance in high school students",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "Science Advances",
      "first_author": "Dunster",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 169,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1126_sciadv_aau6200.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Heissel JA, Norris S (2018). Rise and shine: The effect of school start times on academic performance from childhood through puberty. Journal of Human Resources 53(4):957-992.",
     "doi": "10.3368/jhr.53.4.0815-7346R1",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Florida time-zone boundary instrument: one hour later start relative to sunrise raises adolescent math scores 0.08 SD and reading 0.06 SD, with larger effects after puberty",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Rise and Shine",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Journal of Human Resources",
      "first_author": "Heissel",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 64,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_3368_jhr_53_4_0815_7346R1.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Carrell SE, Maghakian T, West JC (2011). A's from Zzzz's? The causal effect of school start time on the academic achievement of adolescents. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 3(3):62-81.",
     "doi": "10.1257/pol.3.3.62",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2011,
     "design": "natural experiment",
     "supports": "Random assignment of first-period class times at the US Air Force Academy: students assigned early first periods earned lower grades across all their courses",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "A's from Zzzz's? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Achievement of Adolescents",
      "year": 2011,
      "journal": "American Economic Journal: Economic Policy",
      "first_author": "Carrell",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 208,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1257_pol_3_3_62.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bowers JM, Moyer A (2017). Effects of school start time on students' sleep duration, daytime sleepiness, and attendance: a meta-analysis. Sleep Health 3(6):423-431.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.sleh.2017.08.004",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "meta-analysis",
     "supports": "Pooled 20 studies: later start times associated with longer sleep, less daytime sleepiness and less tardiness",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Effects of school start time on students’ sleep duration, daytime sleepiness, and attendance: a meta-analysis",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Sleep Health",
      "first_author": "Bowers",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 156,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Minges KE, Redeker NS (2016). Delayed school start times and adolescent sleep: A systematic review of the experimental evidence. Sleep Medicine Reviews 28:86-95.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.smrv.2015.06.002",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Systematic review of experimental and quasi-experimental delays: consistent gains in sleep duration and reduced sleepiness",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Delayed school start times and adolescent sleep: A systematic review of the experimental evidence",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Sleep Medicine Reviews",
      "first_author": "Minges",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 338,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Marx R, Tanner-Smith EE, Davison CM, et al. (2017). Later school start times for supporting the education, health, and well-being of high school students. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 7:CD009467.",
     "doi": "10.1002/14651858.CD009467.pub2",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Cochrane review: later start times associated with more sleep and some academic and mental-health benefits, but evidence quality rated low",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Later school start times for supporting the education, health, and well-being of high school students",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": "Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews",
      "first_author": "Marx",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 83,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1002_14651858_CD009467_pub2.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Wheaton AG, Chapman DP, Croft JB (2016). School start times, sleep, behavioral, health, and academic outcomes: A review of the literature. Journal of School Health 86(5):363-381.",
     "doi": "10.1111/josh.12388",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2016,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "CDC authors' review of 38 studies: later start times linked to more sleep, better attendance, fewer crashes and less tardiness",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "School Start Times, Sleep, Behavioral, Health, and Academic Outcomes: A Review of the Literature",
      "year": 2016,
      "journal": "Journal of School Health",
      "first_author": "Wheaton",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 312,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1111_josh_12388.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Lenard M, Morrill M, Westall J (2020). High school start times and student achievement: Looking beyond test scores. Economics of Education Review 76:101975.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.101975",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2020,
     "design": "difference-in-differences",
     "supports": "Five high schools moved 40 minutes earlier: absences and tardies rose and more students failed to advance on time, with no test-score change",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "High school start times and student achievement: Looking beyond test scores",
      "year": 2020,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Lenard",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 18,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Groen JA, Pabilonia SW (2019). Snooze or lose: High school start times and academic achievement. Economics of Education Review 72:204-218.",
     "doi": "10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.05.011",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2019,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "PSID time diaries: later starts shift wake times not bedtimes, raise sleep and reading scores for girls, and do not cut jobs or sports",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Snooze or lose: High school start times and academic achievement",
      "year": 2019,
      "journal": "Economics of Education Review",
      "first_author": "Groen",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 42,
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Bastian KC, Fuller SC (2018). Answering the bell: High school start times and student academic outcomes. AERA Open 4(4):1-14.",
     "doi": "10.1177/2332858418812424",
     "url": null,
     "year": 2018,
     "design": "longitudinal",
     "supports": "Counter-evidence: statewide North Carolina data show better engagement (fewer suspensions, higher grades) but mixed test-score associations",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Answering the Bell: High School Start Times and Student Academic Outcomes",
      "year": 2018,
      "journal": "AERA Open",
      "first_author": "Bastian",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 12,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_1177_2332858418812424.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    },
    {
     "ref": "Hafner M, Stepanek M, Troxel WM (2017). Later school start times in the U.S.: An economic analysis. RAND Corporation, RR-2109.",
     "doi": "10.7249/RR2109",
     "url": "https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2109.html",
     "year": 2017,
     "design": "review",
     "supports": "Cost-benefit model: about 150 dollars per student per year in transportation cost, net economic benefit positive within a few years in most states",
     "status": "VERIFIED",
     "crossref": {
      "title": "Later school start times in the U.S.: An economic analysis",
      "year": 2017,
      "journal": null,
      "first_author": "Hafner",
      "title_overlap": 1
     },
     "cited_by": 21,
     "abstract_file": ".abstracts/10_7249_RR2109.txt",
     "checked": "2026-11-03"
    }
   ],
   "indicator": "First-bell instructional start time for every building serving grades 6 through 12 (master schedule); share of secondary students starting before 8:30 a.m.; median school-night sleep from the district climate survey or YRBS item; chronic absence and first-period tardy rates by building.",
   "standard": "Instruction in every school serving any of grades 6 through 12 begins no earlier than 8:30 a.m., and the policy names who reports compliance and by when.",
   "model_clause": "The instructional day for students in grades 6 through 12 shall begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m. in every district school, and no district school shall require student attendance at a zero period, assembly or mandatory activity before that time. The Superintendent shall present to the Board by March 1 of each year a schedule report listing the first-bell time of every building for the coming school year, the number and percentage of secondary students whose instructional day begins before 8:30 a.m., and the transportation plan and cost needed to comply. The Superintendent shall include in the annual student wellness report the median school-night sleep hours reported by secondary students on the district climate survey, together with chronic absence and first-period tardy rates by building. Any building unable to comply shall be named in the report with a dated plan to comply within one school year.",
   "red_flags": [
    "start times set solely by transportation efficiency or bus tiers",
    "zero period or mandatory before-school instruction for secondary students",
    "high school start time earlier than middle or elementary start time",
    "no reporting of building start times to the board",
    "policy delegates bell schedule to the Superintendent with no floor"
   ],
   "silent_is": "harmful",
   "lookup": {
    "keywords": [
     "start time",
     "first bell",
     "school day",
     "bell schedule",
     "zero period",
     "8:30"
    ],
    "regex": "start(ing)? time|first bell|bell schedule|zero period|instructional day (shall )?begin|school day (shall )?begin"
   },
   "law_notes": "California SB 328 (2019) requires high schools to begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m. and middle schools no earlier than 8:00 a.m., effective July 1, 2022, with rural districts exempt. Florida enacted the same floors in 2023 (effective 2026) but in 2025 (SB 296) replaced the mandate with a requirement that districts report by June 1, 2026 that they considered later start times; districts that file the report are deemed compliant. No federal law applies.",
   "stakes": 3,
   "revised": "2026-11-03",
   "implementation": {
    "owner": "Superintendent, with the Director of Transportation and the Chief Academic Officer",
    "first_90_days": [
     "The Superintendent directs the Director of Transportation and each secondary principal to pull the master schedule and list the first-bell instructional start time, any zero period, and any mandatory pre-bell activity for every building serving grades 6 through 12.",
     "The Chief Academic Officer calculates the number and percentage of secondary students whose instructional day currently begins before 8:30 a.m. and reports the figure to the Board within 90 days.",
     "The Director of Transportation drafts the bus routing options and cost estimate needed to move every secondary building to an 8:30 a.m. or later start.",
     "The Superintendent confirms that the district climate survey includes a school-night sleep hours item for secondary students and asks the Director of Assessment to add one if it is missing."
    ],
    "year_one": [
     "The Superintendent presents the schedule report to the Board by March 1 listing each building's first-bell time, the share of secondary students starting before 8:30 a.m., and the transportation plan and cost to comply.",
     "The Superintendent names any building that cannot comply in the March 1 report and attaches a dated plan for that building to comply within one school year.",
     "Secondary principals publish master schedules for the coming school year with no instruction, zero period, assembly or mandatory activity before 8:30 a.m. in every building able to comply.",
     "The Director of Assessment establishes baseline chronic absence and first-period tardy rates by building and baseline median school-night sleep hours from the climate survey."
    ],
    "ongoing": [
     "The Superintendent presents the schedule report to the Board by March 1 of each year and includes the sleep, chronic absence and first-period tardy figures in the annual student wellness report.",
     "The Board reviews the report at a public meeting each spring and votes to accept or return any building compliance plan."
    ]
   },
   "success": {
    "measure": "Percentage of secondary students (grades 6 through 12) whose instructional day begins at or after 8:30 a.m., plus median school-night sleep hours reported by secondary students on the district climate survey and chronic absence and first-period tardy rates by building",
    "baseline": "The number and percentage of secondary students starting before 8:30 a.m. in the current master schedule, and the current median school-night sleep hours, chronic absence rate and first-period tardy rate by building, all recorded in the first March 1 schedule report",
    "target": "100 percent of secondary students begin instruction at or after 8:30 a.m. by the start of the school year following the first March 1 report, with any named noncompliant building in compliance within one school year; median school-night sleep hours rise and chronic absence and first-period tardy rates fall in every converted building by the second annual wellness report",
    "benchmark": "Research gives an 8:30 a.m. floor as the standard and reports about 34 more minutes of sleep per school night, a 4.5 percent rise in median grades and better attendance after a Seattle district-wide delay of nearly an hour; the entry gives no numeric benchmark for the size of the sleep, absence or tardy change this district should expect, so the sleep and attendance target is directional",
    "report": "The Superintendent reports to the Board by March 1 each year in the schedule report and annually in the student wellness report, with figures broken out by building"
   },
   "elements": [
    {
     "id": "start-no-earlier-830",
     "text": "The policy requires instruction in every school serving any of grades 6 through 12 to begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m.",
     "core": true
    },
    {
     "id": "covers-all-secondary-schools",
     "text": "The policy applies the start time floor to every school serving any grade from 6 through 12, including middle schools.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "names-compliance-reporter",
     "text": "The policy names who reports compliance with the start time requirement.",
     "core": false
    },
    {
     "id": "sets-reporting-deadline",
     "text": "The policy states by when the compliance report is due.",
     "core": false
    }
   ]
  }
 ]
}